{"id":927,"date":"2022-02-22T18:35:23","date_gmt":"2022-02-22T18:35:23","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/15-global-climate-change\/"},"modified":"2022-05-18T14:11:28","modified_gmt":"2022-05-18T14:11:28","slug":"15-global-climate-change","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/15-global-climate-change\/","title":{"raw":"15 Global Climate Change","rendered":"15 Global Climate Change"},"content":{"raw":"[caption id=\"attachment_4591\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"767\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-890 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of Earth, with a view of Africa and clouds.\" width=\"767\" height=\"768\"><\/a> The \u201cBlue Marble,\u201d a picture of our planet from the 1972 Apollo 17 mission, shows that our planet is a finite place with many interacting systems. While the exact photographer is unknown, it was most likely taken by the first (and only) geologist on the moon: Harrison \u201cJack\u201d Schmitt.[\/caption]\n<h1>15 Global Climate Change<\/h1>\n<strong>KEY CONCEPTS<\/strong>\n\n<b>At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:<\/b>\n<ul>\n \t<li>Describe the role of greenhouse gases in\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0change.<\/li>\n \t<li>Describe the sources of greenhouse gases.<\/li>\n \t<li>Explain Earth\u2019s energy budget and global\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0changes.<\/li>\n \t<li>Explain how positive and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"761\"]negative feedback[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0mechanisms can influence\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\n \t<li>Explain how we know about climates in the geologic past.<\/li>\n \t<li>Accurately describe which aspects of the environment are changing due to\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0change.<\/li>\n \t<li>Describe the causes of recent [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change, particularly the role of humans in the overall [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] balance<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nThis chapter describes the Earth systems involved in [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0change, the geologic evidence of past\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0changes, and the human role in today\u2019s\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0change. In science, a\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is a group of interacting objects and processes. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1748\"]Earth System Science[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the study of these systems: [pb_glossary id=\"1743\"]geosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u2014rocks; [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u2014gasses; [pb_glossary id=\"1744\"]hydrosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u2014water; [pb_glossary id=\"1746\"]cryosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u2014ice; and [pb_glossary id=\"1747\"]biosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u2014living things. Earth science studies these systems and how they interact and change in response to natural cycles and human-driven, or [pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary] forces. Changes in one Earth [pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary] affect other systems.\n\nIt is critically important for us to be aware of the geologic context of [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change processes and how these Earth systems interact, first, for us to understand how and why human activities cause present-day [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change and, secondly, to distinguish between natural processes and human processes in the geologic past\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] record.\n\nA significant part of this chapter introduces and discusses various processes from these Earth systems, how they influence each other, and how they impact global\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]. For example, Earth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] largely change based on atmospheric gas [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composition[\/pb_glossary], ocean circulation, and the land-surface characteristics of rocks, [pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary], and plants.\n\nAlso necessary to understanding [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change is to distinguish between [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"756\"]weather[\/pb_glossary]. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"756\"]Weather[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0<\/strong>is the short-term [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary] patterns that occur in days\u00a0 and weeks. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]Climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0<\/strong>is the variable range of [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary] patterns averaged over the long-term for a particular region (<a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/13-deserts\/#131_The_Origin_of_Deserts\">see Chapter 13.1<\/a>). Thus, a single cold winter does not mean that the entire globe is cooling\u2014indeed, the United States\u2019 cold winters of 2013 and 2014 occurred\u00a0 while the rest of the Earth was experiencing record warm-winter temperatures. To avoid these generalizations, many scientists use a 30-year average as a good baseline. Therefore, [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change refers to slow [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary] changes and trends over the long term for a particular area or the Earth as a whole.\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">15.1 Earth\u2019s Temperature<\/span><\/h2>\nWithout an\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary], Earth would have huge [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] fluctuations between day and night, like the moon. Daytime temperatures would be hundreds of degrees Celsius above normal, and nighttime temperatures would be hundreds of degrees below normal. Because the Moon doesn\u2019t have much of an\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary], its daytime temperatures are around 106 \u00b0C (224\u2109) and nighttime temperatures are around -183\u00b0C (-298\u2109). That is an astonishing 272\u00b0C (522\u00b0F) degree range between the Moon\u2019s light side and dark side. This section describes how Earth\u2019s\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is involved in regulating the Earth\u2019s\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary].\n<h3><b>15.1.1 Composition of Atmosphere<\/b><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4592\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"200\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.1_Atmosphere_gas_proportions.png\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-891\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Atmosphere_gas_proportions.png\" alt=\"This figure shows the proportion of atmopheric gases at 78% for nitrogen, 21% for oxygen, 1% for argon, and less than 1% for trace components.\" width=\"200\" height=\"417\"><\/a> Composition of the atmosphere[\/caption]\n\nThe\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composition[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is a key component in regulating the planet\u2019s\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]. The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is 78 percent nitrogen (N<sub>2<\/sub>), 21 percent oxygen (O<sub>2<\/sub>), one percent argon (Ar), and less than one percent trace components, which are all other gases. Trace components include carbon dioxide\u00a0(CO<sub>2<\/sub>),\u00a0water vapor (H<sub>2<\/sub>O), neon, helium, and methane.\u00a0Water vapor is highly variable, mostly based on region, and composes about one percent of the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. Trace component gasses include several important\u00a0<strong>greenhouse gases<\/strong>, which are the gases responsible for warming and cooling the plant. On a geologic scale, [pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanoes[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1754\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0process, which bury CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0in\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary], are the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s CO<sub>2 \u00a0<\/sub>sources. Biological processes both add and subtract CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0from the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary].\n\nGreenhouse gases\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2420\"]trap[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0heat in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and warm the planet by absorbing some of the longer-wave outgoing infrared radiation that is emitted from Earth, thus keeping heat from being lost to space. More greenhouse gases in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0absorb more longwave heat and make the planet warmer. Greenhouse gasses have little effect on shorter-wave incoming solar radiation.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4593\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.2_greenhouse-gas-molecules.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4593 size-medium\" title=\"Source: NASA public domain - https:\/\/climate.nasa.gov\/system\/internal_resources\/details\/original\/249_Causes-greenhouse-gas-molecules-cropped-more-55.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_greenhouse-gas-molecules-1.jpg\" alt=\"Illustration of the molecular shape of greenhouse gases.\" width=\"300\" height=\"192\"><\/a> Common greenhouse gases[\/caption]\n\nThe most common greenhouse gases are water vapor (H<sub>2<\/sub>O), carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2<\/sub>), methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>),\u00a0and nitrous\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"971\"]oxide[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0(N<sub>2<\/sub>O).\u00a0Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas, but its atmospheric\u00a0abundance does not change much over time. Carbon dioxide is much less abundant than water vapor, but carbon dioxide is being added to the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0by human activities such as burning\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary], land-use changes, and deforestation. Further, natural processes such as\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0eruptions add carbon dioxide, but at an insignificant rate compared to\u00a0human-caused contributions.\n\nThere are two important reasons why carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas. First, carbon dioxide stays in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] and does not go away for hundreds of years. Second, most of the additional carbon dioxide is \u201c[pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]fossil[\/pb_glossary]\u201d in origin, which means that it is released by burning [pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary]. For example, [pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2415\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary] are [pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]Coal[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2416\"]oil[\/pb_glossary] are made from long-dead plant material, which was originally created by photosynthesis millions of years ago and stored in the ground. Photosynthesis takes sunlight plus carbon dioxide and creates the substances of plants. This transformation occurs over millions of years as a slow process, accumulating [pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]fossil[\/pb_glossary] carbon in rocks and [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary]. So, when we burn [pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2416\"]oil[\/pb_glossary], we instantaneously release the stored solar energy and [pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]fossil[\/pb_glossary] carbon dioxide that took millions of years to accumulate in the first place. The rate of release is critical to comprehend current [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change.\n<h3><b>15.1.2 Carbon Cycle<\/b><\/h3>\nCritical to understanding global [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change is to understand the carbon cycle and how Earth's own carbon-balancing [pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary] is being rapidly thrown off balance by human-driven activities. Earth has two important carbon cycles: the biological and the geological. In the biological cycle, living organisms\u2014mostly plants\u2014consume carbon dioxide from the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] to make their tissues and substances through photosynthesis. Then, after the organisms die, and when they decay over years or decades, that carbon is released back into the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. The following is the general equation for photosynthesis.\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">CO<sub>2<\/sub> + H<\/span><\/i><sub><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2<\/span><\/i><\/sub><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O + sunlight \u2192 \u00a0sugars + O<\/span><\/i><sub><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2<\/span><\/i><\/sub><\/p>\nIn the geological carbon cycle, a portion of the biological-cycle carbon becomes part of the geological carbon cycle: plant materials into [pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2415\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary], tiny fragments and molecules into organic-rich [pb_glossary id=\"1917\"]shale[\/pb_glossary], and the [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] bearing calcareous shells and other parts of [pb_glossary id=\"1961\"]marine[\/pb_glossary] organisms into [pb_glossary id=\"1929\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary]. Such materials become buried and become part of the slow geologic [pb_glossary id=\"2038\"]formation[\/pb_glossary] of [pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] and other sedimentary materials. This cycle actually involves most of Earth\u2019s carbon and operates very slowly.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4594\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-893 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle-1024x791.jpg\" alt=\"Figure shows how carbon moves between reservoirs such as the ocean, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"791\"><\/a> Carbon cycle.[\/caption]\n\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u00a0<\/span>The following are geological carbon-cycle storage\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2419\"]reservoirs[\/pb_glossary]:\n<ul>\n \t<li>Organic matter from plants is stored in peat,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary], and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"760\"]permafrost[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0for thousands to millions of years.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1787\"]Silicate[\/pb_glossary]-[pb_glossary id=\"1765\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1754\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0converts atmospheric carbon dioxide to\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1893\"]dissolved[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0bicarbonate, which is stored in the oceans for thousands to tens of thousands of years.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1961\"]Marine[\/pb_glossary] organisms convert [pb_glossary id=\"1893\"]dissolved[\/pb_glossary] bicarbonate to forms of [pb_glossary id=\"970\"]calcite[\/pb_glossary], which is stored in [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] rocks for tens to hundreds of millions of years.<\/li>\n \t<li>Carbon compounds are directly stored in\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0for tens to hundreds of millions of years; some end up in\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2415\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits.<\/li>\n \t<li>Carbon-bearing\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are transferred by\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1680\"]subduction[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0to the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1664\"]mantle[\/pb_glossary], where the carbon may be stored for tens of millions to billions of years.<\/li>\n \t<li>Carbon dioxide from within the Earth is released back to the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] during [pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanic[\/pb_glossary] eruptions, where it is stored for years to decades.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nDuring much of Earth\u2019s history, the geological carbon cycle has been balanced by [pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanos[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0releasing carbon at approximately the same rate that carbon is stored by the other processes. Under these conditions, Earth\u2019s\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0has remained relatively stable. However, in Earth\u2019s history, there have been times when that balance has been upset. This can happen during prolonged stretches of above-average\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanic[\/pb_glossary] activity. One example is the Siberian\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2420\"]Traps[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0eruption around 250 million years ago, which contributed to strong\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0warming over a few million years.\n\nA carbon imbalance is also associated with significant mountain-building events. For example, the Himalayan Range has been forming for about 40 million years, and over that time \u2014 and still today \u2014 the rate of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1754\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0on Earth has been enhanced because those mountains are so huge and the range is so extensive that they present a greater surface area on which weathering takes place. The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1754\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of these rocks \u2014 most importantly the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1892\"]hydrolysis[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"968\"]feldspar[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0\u2014 has resulted in consumption of atmospheric carbon dioxide and transfer of the carbon to the oceans and to ocean-floor\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary]-rich\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary]. The steady drop in carbon dioxide levels over the past 40 million years, which contributed to the Pliocene-Pleistocene\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciations[\/pb_glossary], is partly attributable to the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2038\"]formation[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of the Himalayan Range.\n\nAnother, nongeological form of carbon-cycle imbalance is happening today on a very rapid time scale. In just a few decades, humans have extracted volumes of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0such as [pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2416\"]oil[\/pb_glossary], and gas, which were stored in rocks over the past several hundred million years, and converted these fuels to energy and carbon dioxide. By doing so, we are changing the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0faster than has ever happened in the past. Remember, carbon dioxide stays in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and does not go away for hundreds of years. The more greenhouse gases in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary], the more heat is trapped and the warmer the planet becomes.\n<h3><b>15.1.3 Greenhouse Effect<\/b><\/h3>\nThe\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"762\"]greenhouse effect[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0<em>is<\/em> the reason our global [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] is rising, but it\u2019s important to understand what this effect is and how it occurs. The [pb_glossary id=\"762\"]greenhouse\u00a0effect[\/pb_glossary] occurs because greenhouse gases are present in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. The [pb_glossary id=\"762\"]greenhouse effect[\/pb_glossary] is named after a similar process that warms a greenhouse or a car on a hot summer day. Sunlight passes through the glass of the greenhouse or car, reaches the interior, and changes into heat. The heat radiates upward and gets trapped by the glass windows. The [pb_glossary id=\"762\"]greenhouse effect[\/pb_glossary] for the Earth can be explained in three steps.\n\n<b>Step 1:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Solar radiation from the sun is [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composed[\/pb_glossary] of mostly ultraviolet (UV), visible light, and infrared (IR) radiation. Components of solar radiation include parts with a shorter [pb_glossary id=\"2264\"]wavelength[\/pb_glossary] than visible light, like ultraviolet light, and parts of the spectrum<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u00a0with longer wavelengths, like IR and others.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u00a0Some of the radiation gets absorbed, scattered, or reflected by the atmospheric gases <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">but about half of the solar radiation eventually reaches the Earth\u2019s surface.<\/span>\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4595\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum.png\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-894\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum.png\" alt=\"Show how different wavelengths of incoming solar radiation are absorbed, scattered, and reflected before reaching the earth's surface.\" width=\"800\" height=\"600\"><\/a> Incoming radiation absorbed, scattered, and reflected by atmospheric gases.[\/caption]\n\n<b>Step 2:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The visible, UV, and IR radiation, that reaches the surface converts to heat energy. Most students have experienced sunlight warming a surface such as pavement, a patio, or deck. When this occurs, the warmer surface then emits thermal radiation, which is a type of IR radiation. So, there is a conversion from visible, UV, and IR to just thermal IR. This thermal IR is what we experience as heat. If you have ever felt heat radiating from a fire or a hot stove top, then you have experienced thermal IR. <\/span>\n\n<b>Step 3:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Thermal IR radiates from the earth\u2019s surface back into the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. But since it is thermal IR instead of UV, visible, or regular IR, this thermal IR gets trapped by greenhouse gases. In other words, the sun's energy leaves the Earth at a different [pb_glossary id=\"2264\"]wavelength[\/pb_glossary] than it enters, so the sun\u2019s energy is not absorbed in the lower [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] when energy is coming in, but rather when the energy is going out. The gases that are mostly responsible for this energy blocking on Earth include carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and nitrous [pb_glossary id=\"971\"]oxide[\/pb_glossary]. More greenhouse gases in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] results in more thermal IR being trapped. Explore this external link to an <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.koshland-science-museum.org\/explore-the-science\/interactives\/what-is-the-greenhouse-effect\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">interactive animation on the greenhouse effect<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> from the National Academy of Sciences.<\/span>\n<h3><b>15.1.4 Earth\u2019s Energy Budget<\/b><\/h3>\nThe solar radiation that reaches Earth is relatively uniform over time. Earth is warmed, and energy or heat radiates from the Earth\u2019s surface and lower [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] back to space. This flow of incoming and outgoing energy is Earth\u2019s energy budget. For Earth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] to be stable over long stretches of time, incoming energy and outgoing energy have to be equal on average so that the energy budget at the top of the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] balances. About 29 percent of the incoming solar energy arriving at the top of the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] is reflected back to space by clouds, atmospheric particles, or reflective ground surfaces like sea ice and snow. About 23 percent of incoming solar energy is absorbed in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] by water vapor, dust, and ozone. The remaining 48 percent passes through the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] and is absorbed at the surface. Thus, about 71 percent of the total incoming solar energy is absorbed by the Earth [pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary].\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4596\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.1_reflected_radiation.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-895 size-medium\" title=\"Source: NASA Public Domain - https:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov\/Features\/EnergyBalance\/images\/reflected_radiation.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_reflected_radiation-300x172.jpg\" alt=\"This figure shows incoming solar radiation, 23% is absorbed in the atmosphere, 29% reflected, and 48% absorbed at the surface after passing through atmosphere.\" width=\"300\" height=\"172\"><\/a> Incoming solar radiation filtered by the atmosphere.[\/caption]\n\nWhen this energy reaches Earth, the atoms and molecules that makeup the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and surface absorb the energy, and Earth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] increases. If this material <em>only <\/em>absorbed energy, then the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of the Earth would continue to increase and eventually overheat. For example, if you continuously run a faucet in a stopped-up sink, the water level rises and eventually overflows. However,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0does not infinitely rise because the Earth is not just absorbing sunlight; it is also radiating thermal energy or heat <em>back <\/em>into the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. If the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of the Earth rises, the planet emits an increasing amount of heat to space, and this is the primary mechanism that prevents Earth from continually heating.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4597\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.1_surface_energy_balance.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-896 size-medium\" title=\"Source: NASA public domain - https:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov\/Features\/EnergyBalance\/images\/surface_energy_balance.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_surface_energy_balance-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"This figure shows incoming solar radiation reaching the surface and changing into longwave radiation that radiates into the atmosphere.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> Some of the thermal infrared energy (heat) radiated from the surface into the atmosphere is trapped by gasses in the atmosphere.[\/caption]\n\nSome of the thermal infrared heat radiating from the surface is absorbed and trapped by greenhouse gasses in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary], which act like a giant canopy over Earth. The more greenhouse gases in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary], the more outgoing heat Earth retains, and the less thermal infrared heat dissipates to space.\n\nFactors that can affect the Earth\u2019s energy budget are not limited to greenhouse gases. Increasing solar energy can increase the energy Earth receives. However, these increases are very small over time. In addition, land and water will absorb more sunlight when there is less ice and snow to reflect the sunlight back to the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. For example, the ice covering the Arctic Sea reflects sunlight back to the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]; this reflectivity is called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"758\"]albedo[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. Furthermore, aerosols (dust particles) produced from burning\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary], diesel engines, and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0eruptions can reflect incoming solar radiation and actually cool the planet. While the effect of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0aerosols on the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary] is weak,\u00a0the effect of human-produced greenhouse gases is not weak. Thus, the net effect of human activity is warming due to more\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0greenhouse gases associated with\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuel[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0combustion.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4598\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"452\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.2_Net-Forcings.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-897\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Net-Forcings.jpg\" alt=\"Graph shows that anthropogenic greenhouse gases have a much larger influence on temperature than other factors such as natural changes.\" width=\"452\" height=\"289\"><\/a> Net effect of factors influencing warming.[\/caption]\n\nAn effect that changes the planet can\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2195\"]trigger[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0feedback mechanisms that amplify or\u00a0suppress the original effect. A\u00a0<strong>positive\u00a0 feedback mechanism<\/strong>\u00a0occurs when the output or effect of a process <em>enhances <\/em>the original stimulus or cause. Thus, it increases the ongoing effect. For example, the loss of sea ice at the North Pole makes that area less reflective, reducing\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"758\"]albedo[\/pb_glossary]. This allows the surface air and ocean to absorb more energy in an area that was once covered by sea ice.\u00a0Another example is melting\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"760\"]permafrost[\/pb_glossary].\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"760\"]Permafrost[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0<\/strong>is permanently frozen [pb_glossary id=\"250\"]soil[\/pb_glossary] located in the high latitudes, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere. As the [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] warms, more [pb_glossary id=\"760\"]permafrost[\/pb_glossary] thaws, and the thick deposits of organic matter are exposed to oxygen and begin to decay. This [pb_glossary id=\"1896\"]oxidation[\/pb_glossary] process releases carbon dioxide and methane, which in turn causes more warming, which melts more [pb_glossary id=\"760\"]permafrost[\/pb_glossary], and so on and on.\n\nA\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"761\"]negative feedback[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0mechanism<\/strong>\u00a0occurs when the output or effect <em>reduces <\/em>the original stimulus or cause. For example, in the short term, more carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2<\/sub>) is expected to cause forest canopies to grow, which absorb more CO<sub>2<\/sub>. Another example for the long term is that increased carbon dioxide in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] will cause more [pb_glossary id=\"1891\"]carbonic acid[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1890\"]chemical weathering[\/pb_glossary], which results in transporting dissolved bicarbonate and other ions to the oceans, which are then stored in [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary].\n\nGlobal warming is evidence that Earth's energy budget is not balanced. Positive effects on Earth's [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] are now greater than negative effects.\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"102\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4862\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-898\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 15.1 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">15.2 Evidence of Recent Climate Change<\/span><\/h2>\nWhile [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] has changed often in the past due to natural causes (see <a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/14-glaciers\/#1451_Causes_of_Glaciations\">chapter 14.5.1<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/15-global-climate-change\/#153_Prehistoric_Climate_Change\">chapter 15.3<\/a>), the scientific consensus is that human activity is causing current very rapid [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change. While this seems like a new idea, it was suggested more than 75 years ago. This section describes the evidence of what most scientists agree is <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> or\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"763\"]human-caused climate change[\/pb_glossary]. For more information, watch this<a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/dquECwUfIQg?list=PL4Wzj82Z15gzrcsvrQxDPB1o4UAUxGbBM\">\u00a0six-minute video on climate change<\/a> by two professors at the North Carolina State University.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4871\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-899\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/dquECwUfIQg[\/embed]\n<h3><b>15.2.1 Global Temperature Rise<\/b><\/h3>\nThe land-ocean [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] index, 1880 to present, compared to a base reference time of 1951-1980, shows ocean temperatures steadily rising. The solid black line is the global annual mean, and the solid red line is the five-year Lowess smoothing. The blue uncertainty bars (95 percent confidence limit) account only for incomplete spatial sampling.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4599\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15_tempgraph.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-900 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_tempgraph-300x159.png\" alt=\"Graph of temperature with time showing gradual increase of 1 degree Celcius in temperature over time with minor fluctuations within the large trend.\" width=\"300\" height=\"159\"><\/a> Land-ocean temperature index, 1880 to present, with a base time 1951-1980. The solid black line is the global annual mean and the solid red line is the five-year Lowess smoothing. The blue uncertainty bars (95% confidence limit) account only for incomplete spatial sampling. The graph shows that Earth\u2019s temperature is rising.[\/caption]\n\nSince 1880, Earth\u2019s surface-[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] average has trended upward with most of that warming occurring since 1970 (see this NASA\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/svs.gsfc.nasa.gov\/4882\">animation<\/a>). Surface temperatures include both land and ocean because water absorbs much additional trapped heat. Changes in land-surface or ocean-surface temperatures compared to a reference [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]period[\/pb_glossary] from 1951 to 1980, where the long-term average remained relatively constant, are called [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"765\"]anomalies[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. A\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"765\"]anomaly[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0thus represents the difference between the measured [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and the average value during the reference [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]period[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]Climate[\/pb_glossary] scientists calculate long-term average temperatures\u00a0over thirty years or more which identified the reference [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]period[\/pb_glossary] from 1951 to 1980.\u00a0Another common range is a century, for example, 1900-2000. Therefore, an\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"765\"]anomaly[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of 1.25 \u2103 (34.3\u00b0F) for 2015 means that the average\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0for 2015 was 1.25 \u2103 (34.3\u00b0F) greater than the 1900-2000 average. In 1950, the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"765\"]anomaly[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0was -0.28 \u2103 (31.5\u00b0F), so this is -0.28 \u2103 (31.5\u00b0F) lower than the 1900-2000 average. These temperatures are annual average measured surface temperatures.\n\nThis video figure of [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"765\"]anomalies[\/pb_glossary] shows worldwide\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0changes since 1880.\u00a0 The more blue, the cooler; the more yellow and red, the warmer.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4864\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-901\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this video via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n\n[video width=\"300\" height=\"200\" mp4=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/01\/15.2_GISTEMP_2015_sm.mp4\" autoplay=\"true\"][\/video]\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIn addition to average land-surface temperatures rising, the ocean has absorbed much heat. Because oceans cover about 70 percent of the Earth\u2019s surface and have such a high specific heat value, they provide a large opportunity to absorb energy. The ocean has been absorbing about 80 to 90 percent of human activities\u2019 additional heat. As a result, [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] in the ocean\u2019s top 701.4 m (2,300 ft) has increased by -17.6\u00b0C (0.3\u2109) since 1969 (<a href=\"https:\/\/climate.nasa.gov\/climate_resources\/40\/\">watch this 3 minute <\/a>video by NASA JPL on the ocean\u2019s heat capacity). The reason the ocean has warmed less than the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary], while still taking on most of the heat, is due to water\u2019s very high specific heat, which means that water can absorb a lot of heat energy with a small [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] increase. In contrast, the lower specific heat of the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] means it has a higher [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] increase as it absorbs less heat\u00a0 energy.\n\nSome scientists suggest that [pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary] greenhouse gases do not cause global warming because between 1998 and 2013, Earth\u2019s surface temperatures did not increase much, despite greenhouse gas concentrations continuing to increase. However, since the oceans are absorbing most of the heat, decade-scale circulation changes in the ocean, similar to La Ni\u00f1a, push warmer water deeper under the surface. Once the ocean\u2019s absorption and circulation is accounted for, and this heat is added back into surface temperatures, then [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] increases become apparent, as shown in the figure. Also, the ocean\u2019s heat storage is temporary, as reflected in the record-breaking warm years of 2014-2016. Indeed, with this temporary ocean-storage effect, the twenty-first century\u2019s first 15 of its 16 years were the hottest in recorded history.\n<h3><b>15.2.2 Carbon Dioxide<\/b><\/h3>\n[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]Anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0greenhouse gases, mostly carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2<\/sub>), have increased since the industrial revolution when humans dramatically increased burning [pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary].\u00a0These levels are unprecedented in the last 800,000-year Earth history as recorded in geologic sources such as ice cores. Carbon dioxide has increased by 40 percent since 1750, and the rate of increase has been the fastest during the last decade. For example, since 1750, 2040<sup>9<\/sup>\u00a0tonnes (2040 gigatons) of CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0have been added to the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]; about 40 percent has remained in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0while the remaining 60 percent has been absorbed into the land by plants and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"250\"]soil[\/pb_glossary] or into the oceans. Indeed, during the lifetime of most young adults, the total\u00a0atmospheric\u00a0CO<sub>2<\/sub> has increased by 50 ppm, or 15 percent.\n\nCharles Keeling, an oceanographer with Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, California, was the first person to regularly measure atmospheric CO<sub>2<\/sub>. Using his methods, scientists at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, have constantly measured atmospheric CO<sub>2 <\/sub>since 1957. NASA regularly publishes these measurements at <u><a href=\"https:\/\/scripps.ucsd.edu\/programs\/keelingcurve\/\">https:\/\/scripps.ucsd.edu\/programs\/keelingcurve\/<\/a><\/u>. Go there <strong>now<\/strong> to see the very latest measurement. Keeling\u2019s measured values have been posted in a curve of increasing values, called the Keeling Curve. This curve varies up and down in a regular annual cycle, from summer when the plants in the Northern Hemisphere are using CO<sub>2<\/sub> to winter when the plants are dormant. But the curve shows a steady CO<sub>2 <\/sub>increase over the past several decades. This curve increases exponentially, not linearly, showing that the rate of CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0increase is itself increasing!\n\n<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1.jpg\"><img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-902 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1.jpg\" alt=\"Keeling curve graph of the carbon dioxide concentration at Mauna Loa Observatory\" width=\"928\" height=\"618\"><\/a>\n\nThe following Atmospheric CO<sub>2 <\/sub>video shows how atmospheric CO<sub>2<\/sub> has varied recently and over the last 800,000 years, as determined by an increasing number of CO<sub>2<\/sub> monitoring stations as shown on the insert map. It is also instructive to watch the video\u2019s Keeling portion of how CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0varies by\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2450\"]latitude[\/pb_glossary].\u00a0This shows that most human CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0sources are in the Northern Hemisphere where most of the land is and where most of the developed nations are.\n<div style=\"height: 0;padding-bottom: 56.25%\">\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4872\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-903\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gH6fQh9eAQE[\/embed]\n\n<\/div>\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n<h3><b>15.2.3 Melting Glaciers and Shrinking Sea Ice<\/b><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4601\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"400\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.2_LandIceAntarctica.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-904\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_LandIceAntarctica-300x149.png\" alt=\"Graph shows decline of Antarctic ice mass by 2,000 gigatons from 2002 to 2016.\" width=\"400\" height=\"198\"><\/a> Decline of Antarctic ice mass from 2002 to 2016[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]Glaciers[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are large ice accumulations that exist year round on the land\u2019s surface. In contrast, icebergs are masses of floating sea ice, although they may have had their origin in [pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary] (see Chapter 14). [pb_glossary id=\"1517\"]Alpine glaciers[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]ice sheets[\/pb_glossary], and sea ice are all melting. Explore melting [pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary] at NASA\u2019s interactive Global Ice Viewer). Satellites have recorded that Antarctica is melting at 1189 tonnes (118 gigatons) per year, and Greenland is melting at 2819 tonnes (281 gigatons) per year; 1 metric tonne is 1000 kilograms (1 gigaton is over 2 trillion pounds). Almost all major [pb_glossary id=\"1517\"]alpine glaciers[\/pb_glossary] are shrinking, deflating, and retreating. The ice-mass loss rate is unprecedented\u2014never observed before\u2014since the 1940\u2019s when quality records for [pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary] began.\n\nBefore\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0warming,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0activity was variable with some retreating and some advancing. Now, [pb_glossary id=\"2252\"]spring[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0snow cover is decreasing, and sea ice is shrinking. Most sea ice is at the North Pole, which is only occupied by the Arctic Ocean and sea ice. The NOAA animation shows how perennial sea ice has declined from 1987 to 2015. The oldest ice is white, and the youngest, seasonal ice is dark blue. The amount of old ice has declined from 20 percent in 1985 to 3 percent in 2015.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4873\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-905\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Fw7GfNR5PLA[\/embed]\n<h3><b>15.2.4 Rising Sea-Level<\/b><\/h3>\nSea level is rising 3.4 millimeters (0.13 inches) per year and has risen 0.19 meters (7.4 inches) from 1901 to 2010. This is thought largely to be from both\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary] melting and thermal expansion of sea water. Thermal expansion means that as objects such as solids, liquids, and gases heat up, they expand in volume.\n\nClassic video demonstration (30 second) on thermal expansion with brass ball and ring (North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics).\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4868\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-906\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/QNoE5IoRheQ[\/embed]\n<h3><b>15.2.5 Ocean Acidification<\/b><\/h3>\nSince 1750, about 40 percent of new [pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary] carbon dioxide has remained in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. The remaining 60 percent gets absorbed by the ocean and vegetation. The ocean has absorbed about 30 percent of that carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide gets absorbed in the ocean, it creates [pb_glossary id=\"1891\"]carbonic acid[\/pb_glossary]. This makes the ocean more acidic, which then has an impact on [pb_glossary id=\"1961\"]marine[\/pb_glossary] organisms that secrete calcium [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] shells. Recall that hydrochloric acid reacts by effervescing with [pb_glossary id=\"1929\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary] rock made of [pb_glossary id=\"970\"]calcite[\/pb_glossary], which is calcium [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary]. A more acidic ocean is associated with [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change and is linked to some sea snails (pteropods) and small protozoan zooplanktons\u2019 (foraminifera) thinning [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] shells and to ocean coral [pb_glossary id=\"1976\"]reefs[\/pb_glossary]\u2019 declining growth rates. Small animals like protozoan zooplankton are an important component at the base of the [pb_glossary id=\"1961\"]marine[\/pb_glossary] ecosystem. Acidification combined with warmer [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] and lower oxygen levels is expected to have severe impacts on [pb_glossary id=\"1961\"]marine[\/pb_glossary] ecosystems and human-harvested fisheries, possibly affecting our ocean-derived food sources.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4865\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-907\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this video via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n\n[video width=\"300\" height=\"200\" webm=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/01\/15.2_Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_NOAA_EVL.webm\"][\/video]\n<h3><b>15.2.6 Extreme Weather Events<\/b><\/h3>\nExtreme\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"756\"]weather[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0events such as hurricanes,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary], and heatwaves are increasing and becoming more intense. Since the 1980\u2019s, hurricanes, which are generated from warm ocean water, have increased in frequency, intensity, and duration and are likely connected to a warmer\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]. Since 1910, average\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0has increased by 10 percent in the contiguous United States, and much of this increase is associated with heavy\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0events. However, the distribution is not even, and more\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is projected for the northern United States while less\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is projected for the already dry southwest. Also, heatwaves have increased, and rising temperatures are already affecting crop yields in northern latitudes. Increased heat allows for greater moisture capacity in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary], increasing the potential for more extreme events.\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"103\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4863\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-908\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 15.2 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">15.3 Prehistoric Climate Change <\/span><\/h2>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4602\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"250\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Laurentide_Ice_Sheet_Extent.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-909 size-full\" title=\"Source: USGS. The maximum extent of glacial ice in the north polar area during Pleistocene time. {{PD-USGov-Interior-USGS}} http:\/\/pubs.usgs.gov\/gip\/continents\/map.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Laurentide_Ice_Sheet_Extent.jpg\" alt=\"Shows extent of last ice age with glacier covering most of Canada and some of the northern U.S. including Alaska, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Great Lakes, and parts of other states.\" width=\"250\" height=\"417\"><\/a> Maximum extent of Laurentide Ice Sheet[\/caption]\n\nOver Earth\u2019s history, the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0has changed a lot. For example, during the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"479\"]Mesozoic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1243\"]Era[\/pb_glossary], the Age of Dinosaurs, the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0was much warmer, and carbon dioxide was abundant in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. However, throughout the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1243\"]Era[\/pb_glossary], 65 million years ago to today, the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0has been gradually cooling. This section summarizes some of these major past\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0changes.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n<h3><strong>15.3.1 Past Glaciations<\/strong><\/h3>\nThrough geologic history,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0has changed slowly over millions of years. Before the most recent Pliocene-[pb_glossary id=\"491\"]Quaternary[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciation[\/pb_glossary], there were other major\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciations[\/pb_glossary]. The oldest, known as the Huronian, occurred toward the end of the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1257\"]Archean[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1242\"]Eon[\/pb_glossary]-early\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1261\"]Proterozoic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1242\"]Eon[\/pb_glossary], about 2.5 billion years ago. The event of that time, the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1262\"]Great Oxygenation Event[\/pb_glossary], was a major happening\u00a0(see Chapter 8) most commonly associated with causing that\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciation[\/pb_glossary]. The increased oxygen is thought to have reacted with the potent greenhouse gas methane, causing cooling.\n\nThe end of the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1261\"]Proterozoic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1242\"]Eon[\/pb_glossary], about 700 million years ago, had other\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciations[\/pb_glossary]. These ancient [pb_glossary id=\"1270\"]Precambrian[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciations[\/pb_glossary] are included in the\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"766\"]Snowball Earth hypothesis[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>.\u00a0Widespread global rock sequences from these ancient times contain evidence that [pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary] existed even in low-latitudes. Two \u00a0examples are [pb_glossary id=\"1929\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0rock\u2014usually formed in tropical\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1961\"]marine[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0environments\u2014and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits\u2014usually formed in cold climates\u2014have been found together from this time in many regions around the world. One example is in Utah. Evidence of [pb_glossary id=\"1653\"]continental[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciation[\/pb_glossary] is seen in interbedded [pb_glossary id=\"1929\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0deposits ([pb_glossary id=\"1989\"]diamictites[\/pb_glossary]) on Antelope Island in the Great Salt Lake.\n\nThe controversial [pb_glossary id=\"766\"]Snowball Earth hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] suggests that a runaway [pb_glossary id=\"758\"]albedo[\/pb_glossary] effect\u2014where ice and snow reflect solar radiation and increasingly spread from polar regions toward the equator\u2014caused land and ocean surfaces to completely freeze and biological activity to collapse. Thinking is that because carbon dioxide could not enter the then-frozen ocean, the ice covering Earth could only melt when [pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanoes[\/pb_glossary] emitted high enough carbon dioxide into the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] to cause greenhouse heating. Some studies estimate that because of the frozen ocean surface, carbon dioxide 350 times higher than today\u2019s concentration was required. Because biological activity did survive, the complete freezing and its extent in the [pb_glossary id=\"766\"]snowball earth hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] are controversial. A competing [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] is the <strong>Slushball Earth [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] <\/strong>in which some regions of the equatorial ocean remained open. Differing scientific conclusions about the stability of Earth\u2019s magnetic poles, impacts on ancient rock evidence from subsequent [pb_glossary id=\"1992\"]metamorphism[\/pb_glossary], and alternate interpretations of existing evidence keep the idea of [pb_glossary id=\"766\"]Snowball Earth[\/pb_glossary] controversial.\n\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]Glaciations[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0also occurred in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1271\"]Paleozoic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1243\"]Era[\/pb_glossary], notably the Andean-Saharan [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciation[\/pb_glossary] in the late [pb_glossary id=\"1277\"]Ordovician[\/pb_glossary], about 440\u2013460 million years ago, which coincided with a major [pb_glossary id=\"755\"]extinction[\/pb_glossary] event, and the Karoo\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]Ice Age[\/pb_glossary] during the Pennsylvanian [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]Period[\/pb_glossary], 323 to 300 million years ago. This [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciation[\/pb_glossary] was one of the evidences cited by Wegener for his [pb_glossary id=\"1653\"]Continental[\/pb_glossary] Drift [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] as his proposed [pb_glossary id=\"2444\"]Pangea[\/pb_glossary] drifted into south polar latitudes. The Karoo [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciation[\/pb_glossary] was associated with an increase of oxygen and a subsequent drop in carbon dioxide, most likely produced by the evolution and rise of land plants<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span>\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4603\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15_cenozoic-t-2.png\"><img class=\"size-large wp-image-910\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_cenozoic-t-2-1024x446.png\" alt=\"Graph showing decrease of average surface temperature from 23 degrees Celsius 50 million years ago to 12 degrees Celsius near present.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"446\"><\/a> Global average surface temperature over the past 70 million years.[\/caption]\n\nDuring the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1243\"]Era[\/pb_glossary]\u2014the last 65 million years,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0started out warm and gradually cooled to today. This warm time is called the\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"767\"]Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum[\/pb_glossary],<\/strong>\u00a0and Antarctica and Greenland were ice free during this time. Since the Eocene,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]tectonic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0events during the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1243\"]Era[\/pb_glossary] caused the planet to persistently and significantly cool. For example, the\u00a0Indian\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]Plate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and Asian\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]Plate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0collided,\u00a0creating the Himalaya Mountains, which increased\u00a0the rate of [pb_glossary id=\"1754\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1755\"]erosion[\/pb_glossary] of [pb_glossary id=\"1787\"]silicate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1765\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary], especially\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"968\"]feldspar[\/pb_glossary]. Increased [pb_glossary id=\"1754\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0consumes carbon dioxide from the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary], which \u00a0reduces the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"762\"]greenhouse effect[\/pb_glossary], resulting in long-term cooling.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4604\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"283\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Antarctic-Circumpolar.png\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-911\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Antarctic-Circumpolar.png\" alt=\"Map of bottom of earth showing Antarctic continent and an ocean current circulating clockwise around it.\" width=\"283\" height=\"279\"><\/a> The Antarctic Circumpolar Current[\/caption]\n\nAbout 40 million years ago, the narrow gap between the South American\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]Plate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and the Antarctica\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]Plate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0widened, which opened the Drake Passage. This opening allowed the water around Antarctica\u2014the Antarctic Circumpolar Current\u2014to flow unrestrictedly west-to-east, which effectively isolated the southern ocean from the warmer waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. The region cooled significantly, and by 35 million years ago, during the Oligocene [pb_glossary id=\"1245\"]Epoch[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0had started to form on Antarctica.\n\nAround 15 million years ago,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1680\"]subduction[\/pb_glossary]-related\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanos[\/pb_glossary] between Central and South America created the Isthmus of Panama, which connected North and South America. This prevented water from flowing between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and reduced heat transfer from the tropics to the poles. This reduced heat transfer created a cooler Antarctica and larger Antarctic\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary]. As a result, the [pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]ice sheet[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0expanded on land and water, increased Earth\u2019s reflectivity and enhanced the [pb_glossary id=\"758\"]albedo[\/pb_glossary] effect, which created a\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"759\"]positive feedback[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0loop: more reflective\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0ice, more cooling, more ice, more cooling, and so on.\n\nBy 5 million years ago, during the Pliocene [pb_glossary id=\"1245\"]Epoch[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]ice sheets[\/pb_glossary] had started to grow in North America and northern Europe. The most intense part of the current [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciation[\/pb_glossary] is the Pleistocene [pb_glossary id=\"1245\"]Epoch[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s last 1 million years. The Pleistocene\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] varies significantly through a range of almost 10\u00b0C (18\u00b0F) on time scales of 40,000 to 100,000 years, and [pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]ice sheets[\/pb_glossary] expand and contract correspondingly. These variations are attributed to subtle changes in Earth\u2019s orbital parameters, called <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"748\"]Milankovitch cycles[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> (see Chapter 14). Over the past million years, the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciation[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0cycles occurred approximately every 100,000 years,\u00a0with many\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0advances occurring in the last 2 million years\u00a0(Lisiecki and\u00a0Raymo, 2005).\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4605\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-912 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"Graph showing the oxygen isotope record for last 5 million years with regular cycles. More pronounced glacial cycles are in the last 1 million years.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\"><\/a> A Pliocene\u2010Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic \u03b418O records (Source: Lisiecki, L. E., &amp; Raymo, M. E. (2005). A Pliocene\u2010Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic \u03b418O records.\u00a0Paleoceanography,\u00a020(1).)[\/caption]\n\nDuring an\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]ice age[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]periods[\/pb_glossary] of warming [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0 are called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2399\"]interglacials[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>; during [pb_glossary id=\"2399\"]interglacials[\/pb_glossary], very brief [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]periods[\/pb_glossary] of even warmer [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] are called\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2400\"]interstadials[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. These warming upticks are related to Earth\u2019s\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0variations, like\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"748\"]Milankovitch cycle[\/pb_glossary]s, which are changes to the Earth\u2019s orbit that can fluctuate [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] (see Chapter 14). In the last 500,000 years, there have been five or six\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2399\"]interglacials[\/pb_glossary], with the most recent belonging to our current time, the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"490\"]Holocene[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1245\"]Epoch[\/pb_glossary].\n\nThe two more recent\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0swings, the Younger Dryas and the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"490\"]Holocene[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0Climatic Optimum, demonstrate complex changes. These events are more recent, yet have conflicting information. The Younger Dryas\u2019 cooling is widely recognized in the Northern Hemisphere, though the event\u2019s timing, about 12,000 years ago, does not appear to be equal everywhere. Also, it is difficult to find in the Southern Hemisphere. The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"490\"]Holocene[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0Climatic Optimum is a warming around 6,000 years ago; it was not universally warmer, nor as warm as current warming, and not warm at the same time everywhere.\n<h3><b>15.3.2 Proxy Indicators of Past Climates<\/b><\/h3>\nHow do we know about past climates? Geologists use proxy indicators to understand past\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]. A\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"2401\"]proxy indicator[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u00a0is a biological, chemical, or physical signature preserved in the rock,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary], or ice record that acts like a fingerprint of something in the past. Thus, they are an <em>indirect <\/em>indicator of [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]. An indirect indicator of ancient\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciations[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0from the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1261\"]Proterozoic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1242\"]Eon[\/pb_glossary] and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1271\"]Paleozoic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1243\"]Era[\/pb_glossary] is the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1765\"]Mineral[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0Fork\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2038\"]Formation[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0in Utah, which contains rock\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2038\"]formations[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0such as [pb_glossary id=\"1989\"]diamictite[\/pb_glossary] ([pb_glossary id=\"1535\"]tillite[\/pb_glossary]). \u00a0This dark rock has many fine-grained components plus some large out-sized clasts like a modern\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1990\"]till[\/pb_glossary].\n\nDeep-sea [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] is an indirect indicator of [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change during the [pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1243\"]Era[\/pb_glossary], about the last 65 million years. Researchers from the Ocean Drilling Program, an international research collaboration, collect deep-sea [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] cores that record continuous [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] accumulation. The [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] provides detailed chemical records of stable carbon and oxygen [pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotopes[\/pb_glossary] obtained from deep-sea benthic foraminifera shells that accumulated on the [pb_glossary id=\"1963\"]ocean floor[\/pb_glossary] over millions of years. The oxygen [pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotopes[\/pb_glossary] are a [pb_glossary id=\"2401\"]proxy indicator[\/pb_glossary] of deep-sea temperatures and [pb_glossary id=\"1653\"]continental[\/pb_glossary] ice volume.\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sediment Cores - Stable Oxygen Isotopes<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4606\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_sediment-core_hg.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-913 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Hannes Grobe, https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PS1920-1_0-750_sediment-core_hg.jpg#metadata\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg-300x290.jpg\" alt=\"Image of sediment core showing clear layering and vertical changes in color and composition.\" width=\"300\" height=\"290\"><\/a> Sediment core from the Greenland continental slope (Source: Hannes Grobe)[\/caption]\n\nHow do oxygen\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotopes[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0indicate past\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]? The two main stable oxygen\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotopes[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are\u00a0<sup>16<\/sup>O and\u00a0<sup>18<\/sup>O. They both occur in water (H<sub>2<\/sub>O) and in the calcium\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0(CaCO<sub>3<\/sub>) shells of foraminifera as both of those substances\u2019 oxygen component. The most abundant and lighter\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotope[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is\u00a0<sup>16<\/sup>O. Since it is lighter, it evaporates more readily from the ocean\u2019s surface as water vapor, which later turns to clouds and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0on the ocean and land. This evaporation is enhanced in warmer sea water and slightly increases the concentration of <sup>18<\/sup>O in the surface seawater from which the plankton derives the [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] for its shells. Thus the ratio of <sup>16<\/sup>O and\u00a0<sup>18<\/sup>O in the fossilized shells in seafloor [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] is a [pb_glossary id=\"2401\"]proxy indicator[\/pb_glossary] of the [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] and evaporation of seawater.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4607\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"446\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3-Ice_Age_Temperature.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-914\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Ice_Age_Temperature.png\" alt=\"Show clear chemical evidence for six glaciations over the past 450,000 years.\" width=\"446\" height=\"298\"><\/a> Antarctic temperature changes during the last few glaciations compared to global ice volume. The first two curves are based on the deuterium (heavy hydrogen) record from ice cores (EPICA Community Members 2004, Petit et al. 1999). The bottom line is ice volume based on oxygen isotopes from a composite of deep-sea sediment cores (Lisiecki and Raymo 2005).[\/caption]\n\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Keep in mind, it is harder to evaporate the heavier water and easier to condense it.\u00a0 As evaporated water vapor drifts toward the poles and tiny droplets form clouds and [pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary], droplets of water with <sup>18<\/sup>O tend to form more readily than droplets of the lighter form and [pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitate[\/pb_glossary] out, leaving the drifting vapor depleted in <sup>18<\/sup>O. During geologic times when the [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] is cooler, more of this lighter [pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary] that [pb_glossary id=\"2197\"]falls[\/pb_glossary] on land is locked in the form of [pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary] ice. Consider that the giant [pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]ice sheets[\/pb_glossary] were more than a mile thick and covered a large part of North America during the last [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]ice age[\/pb_glossary] only 14,000 years ago. During [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciation[\/pb_glossary], the [pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary] thus effectively lock away more <\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">16<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O, thus the ocean water and foraminifera shells become enriched in <\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">18<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Therefore, the ratio of <\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">18<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O to <\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">16<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O (\ud835\udeff<\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">18<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O) in calcium [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] shells of foraminifera is a [pb_glossary id=\"2401\"]proxy indicator[\/pb_glossary] of past [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]. The [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] cores from the Ocean Drilling Program record a continuous accumulation of these [pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]fossils[\/pb_glossary] in the [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] and provide a record of glacials,\u00a0 [pb_glossary id=\"2399\"]interglacials[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2400\"]interstadials[\/pb_glossary].<\/span>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sediment Cores - Boron-Isotopes and Acidity<\/span><\/h4>\nOcean acidity is affected by [pb_glossary id=\"1891\"]carbonic acid[\/pb_glossary] and is a proxy for past atmospheric CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentrations. To estimate the ocean\u2019s pH (acidity) over the past 60 million years, researchers collected deep-sea [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] cores and examined the ancient planktonic foraminifera shells\u2019 boron-[pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotope[\/pb_glossary] ratios. Boron has two [pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotopes[\/pb_glossary]:\u00a0<sup data-preserve-html-node=\"true\">11<\/sup>B and\u00a0<sup data-preserve-html-node=\"true\">10<\/sup>B. In aqueous compounds of boron, the relative abundance of these two [pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotopes[\/pb_glossary] is sensitive to pH (acidity), hence CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentrations. In the early [pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary], around 60 million years ago, CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentrations were over 2,000 ppm, higher pH, and started falling around 55 to 40 million years ago, with noticeable drop in pH, indicated by boron [pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotope[\/pb_glossary] ratios. The drop was possibly due to reduced CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0outgassing from ocean ridges,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanoes[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1992\"]metamorphic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0belts, and increased carbon burial due to [pb_glossary id=\"1680\"]subduction[\/pb_glossary] and the Himalaya Mountains uplift. By the Miocene [pb_glossary id=\"1245\"]Epoch[\/pb_glossary], about 24 million years ago, CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0levels were below 500 ppm,\u00a0and by 800,000 years ago, CO<sup>2<\/sup>\u00a0levels didn\u2019t exceed 300 ppm.\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Carbon Dioxide Concentrations in Ice Cores<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4608\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers.png\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-915\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers-300x136.png\" alt=\"Image of ice core showing seasonal color changes like a tree rings.\" width=\"300\" height=\"136\"><\/a> 19 cm long section of ice core showing 11 annual layers with summer layers (arrowed) sandwiched between darker winter layers. (Source: US Army Corps of Engineers)[\/caption]\n\nFor the recent Pleistocene\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1245\"]Epoch[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0researchers get a more detailed and direct chemical record of the last 800,000 years by extracting and analyzing ice cores from the Antarctic and Greenland\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]ice sheets[\/pb_glossary]. Snow accumulates on these\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]ice sheets[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and creates yearly layers. Oxygen\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]isotopes[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are collected from these annual layers, and the ratio of\u00a0<sup>18<\/sup>O to\u00a0<sup>16<\/sup>O (\ud835\udeff<sup>18<\/sup>O) is used to determine [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] as discussed above. In addition, the ice contains small bubbles of atmospheric gas as the snow turns to ice. Analysis of these bubbles reveals the [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composition[\/pb_glossary] of the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] at these previous times.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4609\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-916 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (Australia) - https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_518_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-300x205.jpg\" alt=\"Antarctic ice showing hundreds of tiny trapped air bubbles from the atmosphere thousands of years ago.\" width=\"300\" height=\"205\"><\/a> Antarctic ice showing hundreds of tiny trapped air bubbles from the atmosphere thousands of years ago. (Source: CSIRO)[\/caption]\n\nSmall pieces of this ice are crushed, and the ancient air is extracted into a\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1226\"]mass spectrometer[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0that can detect the ancient\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s chemistry. Carbon dioxide levels are recreated from these measurements. Over the last 800,000 years, the <em>maximum<\/em> carbon dioxide concentration during warm times was about 300 parts per million (ppm), and the minimum was about 170 ppm during cold stretches. Currently, the earth\u2019s\u00a0atmospheric\u00a0carbon dioxide content is over 410 ppm.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4610\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"818\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k.png\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-917\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k.png\" alt=\"Graph shows concentrations of carbon dioxide around 290 ppm during warm periods and 190 ppm during glacial periods. Total time frame is about 800,000 years.\" width=\"818\" height=\"580\"><\/a> Composite carbon dioxide record from last 800,000 years based on ice core data from EPICA Dome C Ice Core.[\/caption]\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Oceanic Microfossils<\/span><\/h4>\nMicrofossils, like foraminifera, diatoms, and radiolarians can be used as a proxy to interpret past [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] record. Different species of microfossils are found in the [pb_glossary id=\"4823\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1667\"]core[\/pb_glossary]\u2019s different layers. Microfossil groups are called assemblages and their [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composition[\/pb_glossary] differs depending on the climatic conditions when they lived. One assemblage consists of species that lived in cooler ocean water, such as in [pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary] times, and at a different level in the same [pb_glossary id=\"4823\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1667\"]core[\/pb_glossary], another assemblage consists of species that lived in warmer waters.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4870\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-918\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Yvu-g8BkkIg[\/embed]\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Tree Rings<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4611\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Tree.rings_.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-919\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Shows a tree cut in cross-section with tree rings. Each ring form in one year.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a> Tree rings form every year. Rings that are farther apart are from wetter years and rings that are closer together are from dryer years.[\/caption]\n\nTree rings, which form every year as a tree grows, are another past [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] indicator. Rings that are thicker indicate wetter years, and rings that are thinner and closer together indicate dryer years. Every year, a tree will grow one ring with a light section and a dark section. The rings vary in width. Since trees need much water to survive, narrower rings indicate colder and drier climates. Since some trees are several thousand years old, scientists can use their rings for regional paleoclimatic reconstructions, for example, to reconstruct past [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary], vegetation, streamflow, sea-surface [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary], and other [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]-dependent conditions. Paleoclimatic study means relating to a distinct past geologic climate. Also, dead trees, such as those found in Puebloan ruins, can be used to extend this\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2401\"]proxy indicator[\/pb_glossary] by showing long-term droughts in the region and possibly explain why villages were abandoned.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4612\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<a style=\"font-weight: bold;background-color: transparent;text-align: inherit\" href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50.gif\"><img class=\"wp-image-920 size-large\" title=\"Source: R.M.Hantemirov - https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Yamal50.gif\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-1024x224.gif\" alt=\"Tree ring data from last 7000 years showing average summer highs and lows fluctuating around a mean. Last few hundred years are slightly higher than normal.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"224\"><\/a> <span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">Summer [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"765\"]anomalies[\/pb_glossary] for the past 7000 years (Source: R.M.Hantemirov)<\/span>[\/caption]\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pollen<\/span><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_4613\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-921 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Dartmouth Electron Microscope Facility, Dartmouth College - https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized-300x228.jpg\" alt=\"Close up image of what pollen looks like.\" width=\"300\" height=\"228\"><\/a> Scanning electron microscope image of modern pollen with false color added to distinguish plant species.[\/caption]\n\nPollen is also a proxy [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] indicator. Flowering plants produce pollen grains. Pollen grains are distinctive when viewed under a microscope. Sometimes, pollen is preserved in lake [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary] that accumulate in layers every year. Lake-[pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] cores can reveal ancient pollen. [pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]Fossil[\/pb_glossary]-pollen assemblages are pollen groups from multiple species, such as spruce, pine, and oak. Through time, via the [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediment[\/pb_glossary] cores and radiometric age-dating techniques, the pollen assemblages change, revealing the plants that lived in the area at the time. Thus, the pollen assemblages are a past [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] indicator, since different plants will prefer different climates. For example, in the Pacific Northwest, east of the Cascades in a region close to grassland and forest borders, scientists tracked pollen over the last 125,000 years, covering the last two [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciations[\/pb_glossary]. As shown in the figure (Fig. 2 from reference Whitlock and Bartlein 1997), pollen assemblages with more pine tree pollen are found during [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciations[\/pb_glossary] and pollen assemblages with less pine tree pollen are found during [pb_glossary id=\"2399\"]interglacial[\/pb_glossary] times.\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Other Proxy Indicators<\/span><\/h4>\nPaleoclimatologists study many other phenomena to understand past climates, such as human historical accounts, human instrument records from the recent past, lake\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary], cave deposits, and corals.\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"104\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4866\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-922\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 15.3 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">15.4 Anthropogenic Causes of Climate Change<\/span><\/h2>\nAs shown in the previous section, prehistoric [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0changes occur slowly over many millions of years. The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0changes observed today are rapid and largely human caused. Evidence shows that\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0is changing, but what is causing that change? Since the late 1800s, scientists have suspected that human-produced, i.e. [pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary] changes in atmospheric greenhouse gases would likely cause\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0change because changes in these gases have been the case every time in the geologic past. By the middle 1900s, scientists began conducting systematic measurements, which confirmed that human-produced carbon dioxide was accumulating in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and other earth systems, such as forests and oceans. By the end of the 1900s and into the early 2000s, scientists solidified the\u00a0<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]Theory[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]Anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]Climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0Change<\/strong> when evidence from thousands of ground-based studies and continuous land and ocean satellite measurements mounted, revealing the expected\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0increase. The\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]Theory[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]Anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]Climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0Change is that humans are causing most of the current climate changes\u00a0by burning\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0such as\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary],\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2416\"]oil[\/pb_glossary], and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2417\"]natural gas[\/pb_glossary]. Theories evolve and\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1679\"]transform[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0as new data and new techniques become available, and they represent a particular field\u2019s state of thinking. This section summarizes the scientific consensus of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0change.\n<h3><b>15.4.1 Scientific Consensus<\/b><\/h3>\nThe overwhelming majority of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0studies indicate that human activity is causing rapid changes to the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary], which will cause severe environmental damage. There is strong scientific consensus on the issue. Studies published in peer-reviewed scientific journals show that 97 percent of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0scientists agree that\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0warming is caused from human activities. There is no alternative explanation for the observed link between human-produced greenhouse gas emissions and changing modern\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]. Most leading scientific organizations endorse this position, including the U.S. National Academy of Science, which was established in 1863 by an act of Congress under President Lincoln. Congress charged the National Academy of Science \u201cwith providing independent,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0advice to the nation on matters related to science and technology.\u201d Therefore, the National Academy of Science is the leading authority when it comes to policy advice related to scientific issues.\n\nOne way we know that the increased greenhouse gas emissions are from human activities is with isotopic fingerprints. For example,\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary], representing plants that lived millions of years ago,\u00a0have a stable carbon-13 to carbon-12 (<sup>13<\/sup>C\/<sup>12<\/sup>C) ratio that is different from today\u2019s atmospheric stable-carbon ratio ([pb_glossary id=\"2044\"]radioactive[\/pb_glossary] <sup>14<\/sup>C is unstable). Isotopic carbon signatures have been used to identify [pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary] carbon in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] since the 1980s. Isotopic records from the Antarctic [pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]Ice Sheet[\/pb_glossary] show stable isotopic signatures from ~1000 AD to ~1800 AD and a steady isotopic signature gradually changing since 1800, followed by a more rapid change after 1950 as burning of [pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary] dilutes the CO<sub>2<\/sub> in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. These changes show the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0as having a carbon isotopic signature increasingly more similar to that of\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary].\n<h3><b>15.4.2 Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases<\/b><\/h3>\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]Anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary] emissions of greenhouse gases have increased since pre-industrial times due to global economic growth and population growth. Atmospheric concentrations of the leading greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, are at unprecedented levels that haven\u2019t been observed in at least the last 800,000 years<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Pre-industrial level of carbon dioxide was at about 278 parts per million (ppm). As of 2016, carbon dioxide was, for the first time, above 400 ppm for the entirety of the year. Measurements of atmospheric carbon at the Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide Observatory show a continuous increase since 1957 when the observatory was established from 315 ppm to over 417 ppm in 2022. The daily reading today can be seen at <a href=\"https:\/\/www.co2.earth\/daily-co2\">Daily CO2<\/a>.\u00a0 Based on the ice [pb_glossary id=\"1667\"]core[\/pb_glossary] record over the past 800,000 years, carbon dioxide ranged from about 185 ppm during [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]ice ages[\/pb_glossary] to 300 ppm during warm times<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. View the <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">data-accurate NOAA animation below\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">of carbon dioxide trends over the last 800,000 years.<\/span>\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4614\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.4_Fig-1.7-from-Pachauri-et-al-2014.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-923 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Pachauri et al. 2014 - IPCC Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report - https:\/\/www.ipcc.ch\/pdf\/assessment-report\/ar5\/syr\/AR5_SYR_FINAL_All_Topics.pdf\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.7-from-Pachauri-et-al-2014-300x268.jpg\" alt=\"Pie chart shows\" width=\"300\" height=\"268\"><\/a> Total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (gigatonne of CO2- equivalent per year, GtCO2-eq\/yr) from economic sectors in 2010. The circle shows the shares of direct GHG emissions (in % of total anthropogenic GHG emissions) from five economic sectors in 2010. The pull-out shows how shares of indirect CO2 emissions (in % of total anthropogenic GHG emissions) from electricity and heat production are attributed to sectors of final energy use. (Source: Pachauri et al. 2014)[\/caption]\n\nWhat is the source of these\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"764\"]anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0greenhouse gas emissions?\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]Fossil fuel[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0combustion and industrial processes contributed 78 percent of all emissions since 1970. The economic sectors responsible for most of this include electricity and heat production (25 percent); agriculture, forestry, and land use (24 percent); industry (21 percent); transportation, including automobiles (14 percent); other energy production (9.6 percent); and buildings (6.4 percent). More than half of greenhouse gas emissions have occurred in the last 40 years, and 40 percent of these emissions have stayed in the\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]. Unfortunately, despite scientific consensus, efforts to mitigate\u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0change require political action.\u00a0Despite growing [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0change concern, mitigation efforts, legislation, and international agreements have reduced emissions in some places, yet the less developed world\u2019s continual economic growth has increased global greenhouse gas emissions. In fact, the years 2000 to 2010 saw the largest increases since 1970.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4615\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-924 size-large\" title=\"Source: Pachauri et al. 2014 Fig. 1.5 IPCC Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report - https:\/\/www.ipcc.ch\/pdf\/assessment-report\/ar5\/syr\/AR5_SYR_FINAL_All_Topics.pdf\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011-1024x396.jpg\" alt=\"Graph shows carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion increase notable around 1950 and continue to increase consistently until the graph ends in 2011.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"396\"><\/a> Annual global anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in gigatonne of CO2-equivalent per year (GtCO2\/yr) from fossil fuel combustion, cement production and flaring, and forestry and other land use (FOLU), 1750\u20132011. Cumulative emissions and their uncertainties are shown as bars and whiskers[\/caption]\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"105\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4867\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-925\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 15.4 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\nIncluded in Earth Science is the study of the [pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary] of processes that affect surface environments and [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] of the Earth. Recent changes in atmospheric [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] over intervals of decades have been observed. For Earth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] to be stable, incoming radiation from the sun and outgoing radiation from the sun-warmed Earth must be in balance. Gases in the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] called greenhouse gases absorb the infrared thermal radiation from the Earth\u2019s surface, trapping that heat and warming the atmosphere, a process called the [pb_glossary id=\"762\"]Greenhouse Effect[\/pb_glossary]. Thus the energy budget is not now in balance and the Earth is warming. Human activity produces many greenhouse gases that have accelerated [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change. CO2 from [pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuel[\/pb_glossary] burning is one of the major ones. While atmospheric [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composition[\/pb_glossary] is mostly nitrogen and oxygen, trace components including the greenhouse gases (CO2 and methane are the major ones and there are others) have the greatest effect on global warming.\n\nA number of [pb_glossary id=\"759\"]Positive Feedback[\/pb_glossary] Mechanisms, processes whose results reinforce the original process, take place in the Earth [pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary]. An example of a PFM of great concern is [pb_glossary id=\"760\"]permafrost[\/pb_glossary] melting which causes decay of melting organic material that produces CO2 and methane (both powerful greenhouse gases) that warm the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] and promote more [pb_glossary id=\"760\"]permafrost[\/pb_glossary] melting. Two carbon cycles affect Earth\u2019s atmospheric CO2 [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composition[\/pb_glossary], the biologic carbon cycle and the geologic carbon cycle. In the biologic cycle, organisms (mostly plants and also animals that eat them) remove CO2 from the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] for energy and to build their body tissues and return it to the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] when they die and decay. The biologic cycle is a rapid cycle. In the geologic cycle, some organic matter is preserved in the form of [pb_glossary id=\"2415\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] while more is [pb_glossary id=\"1893\"]dissolved[\/pb_glossary] in seawater and captured in [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary], some of which is [pb_glossary id=\"1680\"]subducted[\/pb_glossary] into the [pb_glossary id=\"1664\"]mantle[\/pb_glossary] and returned by [pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanic[\/pb_glossary] activity. The geologic carbon cycle is slow over geologic time.\n\nMeasurements of increasing atmospheric [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] have been made since the nineteenth century but the upward [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] trend itself increased in the mid twentieth century showing the current trend is exponential. Because of the high specific heat of water, the oceans have absorbed most of the added heat. That this is temporary storage is revealed by the record-breaking warm years of the recent decade and the increase in intense storms and hurricanes. In 1957 the Mauna Loa CO2 Observatory was established in Hawaii providing constant measurements of atmospheric CO2 since 1958. The initial value was 315 ppm. The Keeling curve, named for the observatory founder, shows that value has steadily increased, exponentially, to over 417 ppm now. Compared to proxy data from atmospheric gases trapped in ice cores that show a maximum value for CO2 of about 300 ppm over the last 800,000 years, the Keeling increase of over 100 ppm in 50 years is dramatic evidence of human caused CO2 increase and [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change! As Earth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] rises, [pb_glossary id=\"1516\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1519\"]ice sheets[\/pb_glossary] are shrinking resulting in sea level rise. Atmospheric CO2 is also absorbed in sea water producing increased concentrations of [pb_glossary id=\"1891\"]carbonic acid[\/pb_glossary] which is raising the pH of the oceans making it harder for [pb_glossary id=\"1961\"]marine[\/pb_glossary] life to extract [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary] for their skeletal materials.\n\nEarth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] has changed over geologic time with [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]periods[\/pb_glossary] of major [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciations[\/pb_glossary]. There was a high [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]period[\/pb_glossary] in the [pb_glossary id=\"479\"]Mesozoic[\/pb_glossary] shown by fossils in high latitudes and the Western Interior Seaway covering what is now the Midwest. However, [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] has been cooling during the [pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary] culminating in the [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]Ice Age[\/pb_glossary]. Since the [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]Ice Age[\/pb_glossary], several proxy indicators of ancient [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] show that the rate and amount of current [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change is unique in geologic history and can only be attributed to human activity. Those who ignore the consequences of increasing global warming for our planet\u2019s future do so at the peril of our posterity!\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this Chapter.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"106\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4869\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-926\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the review quiz for Chapter 15 via this QR Code[\/caption]\n<h2><b>References<\/b><\/h2>\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\">\n<ol>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Allen, P.A., and Etienne, J.L., 2008, Sedimentary challenge to [pb_glossary id=\"766\"]Snowball Earth[\/pb_glossary]: Nat. Geosci., v. 1, no. 12, p. 817\u2013825.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Berner, R.A., 1998, The carbon cycle and carbon dioxide over [pb_glossary id=\"1269\"]Phanerozoic[\/pb_glossary] time: the role of land plants: Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci., v. 353, no. 1365, p. 75\u201382.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Cunningham, W.L., Leventer, A., Andrews, J.T., Jennings, A.E., and Licht, K.J., 1999, Late Pleistocene\u2013[pb_glossary id=\"490\"]Holocene[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1961\"]marine[\/pb_glossary] conditions in the Ross Sea, Antarctica: evidence from the diatom record: The [pb_glossary id=\"490\"]Holocene[\/pb_glossary], v. 9, no. 2, p. 129\u2013139.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Deynoux, M., Miller, J.M.G., and Domack, E.W., 2004, Earth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]Glacial[\/pb_glossary] Record: World and Regional Geology, Cambridge University Press, World and Regional Geology.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Earle, S., 2015, Physical geology OER textbook: BC Campus OpenEd.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Eyles, N., and Januszczak, N., 2004, \u201cZipper-[pb_glossary id=\"1702\"]rift[\/pb_glossary]\u201d: a [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]tectonic[\/pb_glossary] model for Neoproterozoic [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]glaciations[\/pb_glossary] during the breakup of [pb_glossary id=\"1263\"]Rodinia[\/pb_glossary] after 750 Ma: Earth-Sci. Rev.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Francey, R.J., Allison, C.E., Etheridge, D.M., Trudinger, C.M., and others, 1999, A 1000\u2010year high precision record of \u03b413C in atmospheric CO2: Tellus B Chem. Phys. Meteorol.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Gutro, R., 2005, NASA - What\u2019s the Difference Between [pb_glossary id=\"756\"]Weather[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]Climate[\/pb_glossary]? Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/noaa-n\/climate\/climate_weather.html\">http:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/noaa-n\/climate\/climate_weather.html<\/a>, accessed September 2016.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hoffman, P.F., Kaufman, A.J., Halverson, G.P., and Schrag, D.P., 1998, A neoproterozoic [pb_glossary id=\"766\"]snowball earth[\/pb_glossary]: Science, v. 281, no. 5381, p. 1342\u20131346.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Kopp, R.E., Kirschvink, J.L., Hilburn, I.A., and Nash, C.Z., 2005, The Paleoproterozoic [pb_glossary id=\"766\"]snowball Earth[\/pb_glossary]: a [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., v. 102, no. 32, p. 11131\u201311136.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Lean, J., Beer, J., and Bradley, R., 1995, Reconstruction of solar irradiance since 1610: Implications for [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] cbange: Geophys. Res. Lett., v. 22, no. 23, p. 3195\u20133198.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Levitus, S., Antonov, J.I., Wang, J., Delworth, T.L., Dixon, K.W., and Broccoli, A.J., 2001, [pb_glossary id=\"764\"]Anthropogenic[\/pb_glossary] warming of Earth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary]: Science, v. 292, no. 5515, p. 267\u2013270.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Lindsey, R., 2009, [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]Climate[\/pb_glossary] and Earth\u2019s Energy Budget\u202f: Feature Articles: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov\">http:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov<\/a>, accessed September 2016.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">North Carolina State University, 2013a, [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]Composition[\/pb_glossary] of the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]Atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]:<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">North Carolina State University, 2013b, [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]Composition[\/pb_glossary] of the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]Atmosphere[\/pb_glossary]: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/climate.ncsu.edu\/edu\/k12\/.AtmComposition\">http:\/\/climate.ncsu.edu\/edu\/k12\/.AtmComposition<\/a>, accessed September 2016.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Oreskes, N., 2004, The scientific consensus on [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change: Science, v. 306, no. 5702, p. 1686\u20131686.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Pachauri, R.K., Allen, M.R., Barros, V.R., Broome, J., Cramer, W., Christ, R., Church, J.A., Clarke, L., Dahe, Q., Dasgupta, P., Dubash, N.K., Edenhofer, O., Elgizouli, I., Field, C.B., and others, 2014, [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]Climate[\/pb_glossary] Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]Climate[\/pb_glossary] Change (R. K. Pachauri &amp; L. Meyer, Eds.): Geneva, Switzerland, IPCC, 151 p.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Santer, B.D., Mears, C., Wentz, F.J., Taylor, K.E., Gleckler, P.J., Wigley, T.M.L., Barnett, T.P., Boyle, J.S., Br\u00fcggemann, W., Gillett, N.P., Klein, S.A., Meehl, G.A., Nozawa, T., Pierce, D.W., and others, 2007, Identification of human-induced changes in atmospheric moisture content: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., v. 104, no. 39, p. 15248\u201315253.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Schopf, J.W., and Klein, C., 1992, Late [pb_glossary id=\"1261\"]Proterozoic[\/pb_glossary] Low-[pb_glossary id=\"2450\"]Latitude[\/pb_glossary] Global [pb_glossary id=\"747\"]Glaciation[\/pb_glossary]: the [pb_glossary id=\"766\"]Snowball Earth[\/pb_glossary], <i>in<\/i> Schopf, J.W., and Klein, C., editors, The [pb_glossary id=\"1261\"]Proterozoic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1747\"]biosphere\u202f[\/pb_glossary]: a multidisciplinary study: New York, Cambridge University Press, p. 51\u201352.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Webb, T., and Thompson, W., 1986, Is vegetation in equilibrium with [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary]? How to interpret late-[pb_glossary id=\"491\"]Quaternary[\/pb_glossary] pollen data: Vegetatio, v. 67, no. 2, p. 75\u201391.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Weissert, H., 2000, Deciphering methane\u2019s fingerprint: Nature, v. 406, no. 6794, p. 356\u2013357.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Whitlock, C., and Bartlein, P.J., 1997, Vegetation and [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change in northwest America during the past 125 kyr: Nature, v. 388, no. 6637, p. 57\u201361.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Wolpert, S., 2009, New NASA [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] maps provide a \u2018whole new way of seeing the moon\u2019: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/newsroom.ucla.edu\/releases\/new-nasa-temperature-maps-provide-102070\">http:\/\/newsroom.ucla.edu\/releases\/new-nasa-temperature-maps-provide-102070<\/a>, accessed February 2017.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., and Billups, K., 2001, Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] 65 Ma to present: Science, v. 292, no. 5517, p. 686\u2013693.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<figure id=\"attachment_4591\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4591\" style=\"width: 767px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-890 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of Earth, with a view of Africa and clouds.\" width=\"767\" height=\"768\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 767w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17-65x65.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17-225x225.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/15The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17-350x350.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 767px) 100vw, 767px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4591\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The \u201cBlue Marble,\u201d a picture of our planet from the 1972 Apollo 17 mission, shows that our planet is a finite place with many interacting systems. While the exact photographer is unknown, it was most likely taken by the first (and only) geologist on the moon: Harrison \u201cJack\u201d Schmitt.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h1>15 Global Climate Change<\/h1>\n<p><strong>KEY CONCEPTS<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><b>At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the role of greenhouse gases in\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0change.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the sources of greenhouse gases.<\/li>\n<li>Explain Earth\u2019s energy budget and global\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0changes.<\/li>\n<li>Explain how positive and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_761\">negative feedback<\/a>\u00a0mechanisms can influence\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Explain how we know about climates in the geologic past.<\/li>\n<li>Accurately describe which aspects of the environment are changing due to\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0change.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the causes of recent <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change, particularly the role of humans in the overall <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> balance<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This chapter describes the Earth systems involved in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0change, the geologic evidence of past\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0changes, and the human role in today\u2019s\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0change. In science, a\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>\u00a0is a group of interacting objects and processes. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1748\">Earth System Science<\/a><\/strong> is the study of these systems: <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1743\">geosphere<\/a>\u2014rocks; <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u2014gasses; <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1744\">hydrosphere<\/a>\u2014water; <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1746\">cryosphere<\/a>\u2014ice; and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1747\">biosphere<\/a>\u2014living things. Earth science studies these systems and how they interact and change in response to natural cycles and human-driven, or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a> forces. Changes in one Earth <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> affect other systems.<\/p>\n<p>It is critically important for us to be aware of the geologic context of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change processes and how these Earth systems interact, first, for us to understand how and why human activities cause present-day <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change and, secondly, to distinguish between natural processes and human processes in the geologic past\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> record.<\/p>\n<p>A significant part of this chapter introduces and discusses various processes from these Earth systems, how they influence each other, and how they impact global\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>. For example, Earth\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> largely change based on atmospheric gas composition, ocean circulation, and the land-surface characteristics of rocks, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a>, and plants.<\/p>\n<p>Also necessary to understanding <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change is to distinguish between <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_756\">weather<\/a>. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_756\">Weather<\/a>\u00a0<\/strong>is the short-term <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> patterns that occur in days\u00a0 and weeks. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">Climate<\/a>\u00a0<\/strong>is the variable range of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> patterns averaged over the long-term for a particular region (<a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/13-deserts\/#131_The_Origin_of_Deserts\">see Chapter 13.1<\/a>). Thus, a single cold winter does not mean that the entire globe is cooling\u2014indeed, the United States\u2019 cold winters of 2013 and 2014 occurred\u00a0 while the rest of the Earth was experiencing record warm-winter temperatures. To avoid these generalizations, many scientists use a 30-year average as a good baseline. Therefore, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change refers to slow <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> changes and trends over the long term for a particular area or the Earth as a whole.<\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">15.1 Earth\u2019s Temperature<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Without an\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, Earth would have huge <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> fluctuations between day and night, like the moon. Daytime temperatures would be hundreds of degrees Celsius above normal, and nighttime temperatures would be hundreds of degrees below normal. Because the Moon doesn\u2019t have much of an\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, its daytime temperatures are around 106 \u00b0C (224\u2109) and nighttime temperatures are around -183\u00b0C (-298\u2109). That is an astonishing 272\u00b0C (522\u00b0F) degree range between the Moon\u2019s light side and dark side. This section describes how Earth\u2019s\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0is involved in regulating the Earth\u2019s\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3><b>15.1.1 Composition of Atmosphere<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4592\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4592\" style=\"width: 200px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.1_Atmosphere_gas_proportions.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-891\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Atmosphere_gas_proportions.png\" alt=\"This figure shows the proportion of atmopheric gases at 78% for nitrogen, 21% for oxygen, 1% for argon, and less than 1% for trace components.\" width=\"200\" height=\"417\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Atmosphere_gas_proportions.png 200w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Atmosphere_gas_proportions-144x300.png 144w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Atmosphere_gas_proportions-65x136.png 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4592\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Composition of the atmosphere<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u2019s\u00a0composition\u00a0is a key component in regulating the planet\u2019s\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>. The\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0is 78 percent nitrogen (N<sub>2<\/sub>), 21 percent oxygen (O<sub>2<\/sub>), one percent argon (Ar), and less than one percent trace components, which are all other gases. Trace components include carbon dioxide\u00a0(CO<sub>2<\/sub>),\u00a0water vapor (H<sub>2<\/sub>O), neon, helium, and methane.\u00a0Water vapor is highly variable, mostly based on region, and composes about one percent of the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. Trace component gasses include several important\u00a0<strong>greenhouse gases<\/strong>, which are the gases responsible for warming and cooling the plant. On a geologic scale, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanoes<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1754\">weathering<\/a>\u00a0process, which bury CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0in\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>, are the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u2019s CO<sub>2 \u00a0<\/sub>sources. Biological processes both add and subtract CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0from the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Greenhouse gases\u00a0trap\u00a0heat in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0and warm the planet by absorbing some of the longer-wave outgoing infrared radiation that is emitted from Earth, thus keeping heat from being lost to space. More greenhouse gases in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0absorb more longwave heat and make the planet warmer. Greenhouse gasses have little effect on shorter-wave incoming solar radiation.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4593\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4593\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.2_greenhouse-gas-molecules.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-4593 size-medium\" title=\"Source: NASA public domain - https:\/\/climate.nasa.gov\/system\/internal_resources\/details\/original\/249_Causes-greenhouse-gas-molecules-cropped-more-55.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_greenhouse-gas-molecules-1.jpg\" alt=\"Illustration of the molecular shape of greenhouse gases.\" width=\"300\" height=\"192\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4593\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Common greenhouse gases<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The most common greenhouse gases are water vapor (H<sub>2<\/sub>O), carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2<\/sub>), methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>),\u00a0and nitrous\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_971\">oxide<\/a>\u00a0(N<sub>2<\/sub>O).\u00a0Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas, but its atmospheric\u00a0abundance does not change much over time. Carbon dioxide is much less abundant than water vapor, but carbon dioxide is being added to the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0by human activities such as burning\u00a0fossil fuels, land-use changes, and deforestation. Further, natural processes such as\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanic<\/a>\u00a0eruptions add carbon dioxide, but at an insignificant rate compared to\u00a0human-caused contributions.<\/p>\n<p>There are two important reasons why carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas. First, carbon dioxide stays in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> and does not go away for hundreds of years. Second, most of the additional carbon dioxide is \u201c<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1228\">fossil<\/a>\u201d in origin, which means that it is released by burning fossil fuels. For example, coal and petroleum are fossil fuels. Coal and oil are made from long-dead plant material, which was originally created by photosynthesis millions of years ago and stored in the ground. Photosynthesis takes sunlight plus carbon dioxide and creates the substances of plants. This transformation occurs over millions of years as a slow process, accumulating <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1228\">fossil<\/a> carbon in rocks and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>. So, when we burn coal and oil, we instantaneously release the stored solar energy and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1228\">fossil<\/a> carbon dioxide that took millions of years to accumulate in the first place. The rate of release is critical to comprehend current <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change.<\/p>\n<h3><b>15.1.2 Carbon Cycle<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>Critical to understanding global <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change is to understand the carbon cycle and how Earth&rsquo;s own carbon-balancing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> is being rapidly thrown off balance by human-driven activities. Earth has two important carbon cycles: the biological and the geological. In the biological cycle, living organisms\u2014mostly plants\u2014consume carbon dioxide from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> to make their tissues and substances through photosynthesis. Then, after the organisms die, and when they decay over years or decades, that carbon is released back into the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. The following is the general equation for photosynthesis.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">CO<sub>2<\/sub> + H<\/span><\/i><sub><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2<\/span><\/i><\/sub><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O + sunlight \u2192 \u00a0sugars + O<\/span><\/i><sub><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2<\/span><\/i><\/sub><\/p>\n<p>In the geological carbon cycle, a portion of the biological-cycle carbon becomes part of the geological carbon cycle: plant materials into coal and petroleum, tiny fragments and molecules into organic-rich shale, and the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a> bearing calcareous shells and other parts of marine organisms into limestone. Such materials become buried and become part of the slow geologic formation of coal and other sedimentary materials. This cycle actually involves most of Earth\u2019s carbon and operates very slowly.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4594\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4594\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-893 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle-1024x791.jpg\" alt=\"Figure shows how carbon moves between reservoirs such as the ocean, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"791\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle-1024x791.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle-300x232.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle-768x593.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle-65x50.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle-225x174.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle-350x270.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Carbon-Cycle.jpg 1100w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4594\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Carbon cycle.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u00a0<\/span>The following are geological carbon-cycle storage\u00a0reservoirs:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Organic matter from plants is stored in peat,\u00a0coal, and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">permafrost<\/a>\u00a0for thousands to millions of years.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1787\">Silicate<\/a>&#8211;<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1765\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1754\">weathering<\/a>\u00a0converts atmospheric carbon dioxide to\u00a0dissolved\u00a0bicarbonate, which is stored in the oceans for thousands to tens of thousands of years.<\/li>\n<li>Marine organisms convert dissolved bicarbonate to forms of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">calcite<\/a>, which is stored in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a> rocks for tens to hundreds of millions of years.<\/li>\n<li>Carbon compounds are directly stored in\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>\u00a0for tens to hundreds of millions of years; some end up in\u00a0petroleum\u00a0deposits.<\/li>\n<li>Carbon-bearing\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>\u00a0are transferred by\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1680\">subduction<\/a>\u00a0to the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1664\">mantle<\/a>, where the carbon may be stored for tens of millions to billions of years.<\/li>\n<li>Carbon dioxide from within the Earth is released back to the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> during <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanic<\/a> eruptions, where it is stored for years to decades.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>During much of Earth\u2019s history, the geological carbon cycle has been balanced by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanos<\/a>\u00a0releasing carbon at approximately the same rate that carbon is stored by the other processes. Under these conditions, Earth\u2019s\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0has remained relatively stable. However, in Earth\u2019s history, there have been times when that balance has been upset. This can happen during prolonged stretches of above-average\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanic<\/a> activity. One example is the Siberian\u00a0Traps\u00a0eruption around 250 million years ago, which contributed to strong\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0warming over a few million years.<\/p>\n<p>A carbon imbalance is also associated with significant mountain-building events. For example, the Himalayan Range has been forming for about 40 million years, and over that time \u2014 and still today \u2014 the rate of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1754\">weathering<\/a>\u00a0on Earth has been enhanced because those mountains are so huge and the range is so extensive that they present a greater surface area on which weathering takes place. The\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1754\">weathering<\/a>\u00a0of these rocks \u2014 most importantly the\u00a0hydrolysis\u00a0of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_968\">feldspar<\/a>\u00a0\u2014 has resulted in consumption of atmospheric carbon dioxide and transfer of the carbon to the oceans and to ocean-floor\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a>-rich\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>. The steady drop in carbon dioxide levels over the past 40 million years, which contributed to the Pliocene-Pleistocene\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciations<\/a>, is partly attributable to the\u00a0formation\u00a0of the Himalayan Range.<\/p>\n<p>Another, nongeological form of carbon-cycle imbalance is happening today on a very rapid time scale. In just a few decades, humans have extracted volumes of\u00a0fossil fuels,\u00a0such as coal,\u00a0oil, and gas, which were stored in rocks over the past several hundred million years, and converted these fuels to energy and carbon dioxide. By doing so, we are changing the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0faster than has ever happened in the past. Remember, carbon dioxide stays in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0and does not go away for hundreds of years. The more greenhouse gases in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, the more heat is trapped and the warmer the planet becomes.<\/p>\n<h3><b>15.1.3 Greenhouse Effect<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_762\">greenhouse effect<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0<em>is<\/em> the reason our global <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> is rising, but it\u2019s important to understand what this effect is and how it occurs. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_762\">greenhouse\u00a0effect<\/a> occurs because greenhouse gases are present in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_762\">greenhouse effect<\/a> is named after a similar process that warms a greenhouse or a car on a hot summer day. Sunlight passes through the glass of the greenhouse or car, reaches the interior, and changes into heat. The heat radiates upward and gets trapped by the glass windows. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_762\">greenhouse effect<\/a> for the Earth can be explained in three steps.<\/p>\n<p><b>Step 1:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Solar radiation from the sun is composed of mostly ultraviolet (UV), visible light, and infrared (IR) radiation. Components of solar radiation include parts with a shorter wavelength than visible light, like ultraviolet light, and parts of the spectrum<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u00a0with longer wavelengths, like IR and others.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u00a0Some of the radiation gets absorbed, scattered, or reflected by the atmospheric gases <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">but about half of the solar radiation eventually reaches the Earth\u2019s surface.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4595\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4595\" style=\"width: 800px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-894\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum.png\" alt=\"Show how different wavelengths of incoming solar radiation are absorbed, scattered, and reflected before reaching the earth's surface.\" width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum.png 800w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum-768x576.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum-65x49.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum-225x169.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_Solar_Spectrum-350x263.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4595\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Incoming radiation absorbed, scattered, and reflected by atmospheric gases.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><b>Step 2:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The visible, UV, and IR radiation, that reaches the surface converts to heat energy. Most students have experienced sunlight warming a surface such as pavement, a patio, or deck. When this occurs, the warmer surface then emits thermal radiation, which is a type of IR radiation. So, there is a conversion from visible, UV, and IR to just thermal IR. This thermal IR is what we experience as heat. If you have ever felt heat radiating from a fire or a hot stove top, then you have experienced thermal IR. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Step 3:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Thermal IR radiates from the earth\u2019s surface back into the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. But since it is thermal IR instead of UV, visible, or regular IR, this thermal IR gets trapped by greenhouse gases. In other words, the sun&rsquo;s energy leaves the Earth at a different wavelength than it enters, so the sun\u2019s energy is not absorbed in the lower <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> when energy is coming in, but rather when the energy is going out. The gases that are mostly responsible for this energy blocking on Earth include carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and nitrous <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_971\">oxide<\/a>. More greenhouse gases in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> results in more thermal IR being trapped. Explore this external link to an <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.koshland-science-museum.org\/explore-the-science\/interactives\/what-is-the-greenhouse-effect\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">interactive animation on the greenhouse effect<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> from the National Academy of Sciences.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>15.1.4 Earth\u2019s Energy Budget<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The solar radiation that reaches Earth is relatively uniform over time. Earth is warmed, and energy or heat radiates from the Earth\u2019s surface and lower <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> back to space. This flow of incoming and outgoing energy is Earth\u2019s energy budget. For Earth\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> to be stable over long stretches of time, incoming energy and outgoing energy have to be equal on average so that the energy budget at the top of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> balances. About 29 percent of the incoming solar energy arriving at the top of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> is reflected back to space by clouds, atmospheric particles, or reflective ground surfaces like sea ice and snow. About 23 percent of incoming solar energy is absorbed in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> by water vapor, dust, and ozone. The remaining 48 percent passes through the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> and is absorbed at the surface. Thus, about 71 percent of the total incoming solar energy is absorbed by the Earth <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4596\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4596\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.1_reflected_radiation.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-895 size-medium\" title=\"Source: NASA Public Domain - https:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov\/Features\/EnergyBalance\/images\/reflected_radiation.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_reflected_radiation-300x172.jpg\" alt=\"This figure shows incoming solar radiation, 23% is absorbed in the atmosphere, 29% reflected, and 48% absorbed at the surface after passing through atmosphere.\" width=\"300\" height=\"172\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_reflected_radiation-300x172.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_reflected_radiation-65x37.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_reflected_radiation-225x129.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_reflected_radiation-350x201.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_reflected_radiation.jpg 720w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4596\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Incoming solar radiation filtered by the atmosphere.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>When this energy reaches Earth, the atoms and molecules that makeup the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0and surface absorb the energy, and Earth\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> increases. If this material <em>only <\/em>absorbed energy, then the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0of the Earth would continue to increase and eventually overheat. For example, if you continuously run a faucet in a stopped-up sink, the water level rises and eventually overflows. However,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0does not infinitely rise because the Earth is not just absorbing sunlight; it is also radiating thermal energy or heat <em>back <\/em>into the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. If the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0of the Earth rises, the planet emits an increasing amount of heat to space, and this is the primary mechanism that prevents Earth from continually heating.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4597\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4597\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.1_surface_energy_balance.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-896 size-medium\" title=\"Source: NASA public domain - https:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov\/Features\/EnergyBalance\/images\/surface_energy_balance.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_surface_energy_balance-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"This figure shows incoming solar radiation reaching the surface and changing into longwave radiation that radiates into the atmosphere.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_surface_energy_balance-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_surface_energy_balance-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_surface_energy_balance-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_surface_energy_balance-350x233.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1_surface_energy_balance.jpg 720w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4597\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Some of the thermal infrared energy (heat) radiated from the surface into the atmosphere is trapped by gasses in the atmosphere.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Some of the thermal infrared heat radiating from the surface is absorbed and trapped by greenhouse gasses in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, which act like a giant canopy over Earth. The more greenhouse gases in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, the more outgoing heat Earth retains, and the less thermal infrared heat dissipates to space.<\/p>\n<p>Factors that can affect the Earth\u2019s energy budget are not limited to greenhouse gases. Increasing solar energy can increase the energy Earth receives. However, these increases are very small over time. In addition, land and water will absorb more sunlight when there is less ice and snow to reflect the sunlight back to the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. For example, the ice covering the Arctic Sea reflects sunlight back to the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>; this reflectivity is called\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_758\">albedo<\/a><\/strong>. Furthermore, aerosols (dust particles) produced from burning\u00a0coal, diesel engines, and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanic<\/a>\u00a0eruptions can reflect incoming solar radiation and actually cool the planet. While the effect of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a>\u00a0aerosols on the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u2019s\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> is weak,\u00a0the effect of human-produced greenhouse gases is not weak. Thus, the net effect of human activity is warming due to more\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a>\u00a0greenhouse gases associated with\u00a0fossil fuel\u00a0combustion.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4598\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4598\" style=\"width: 452px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.2_Net-Forcings.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-897\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Net-Forcings.jpg\" alt=\"Graph shows that anthropogenic greenhouse gases have a much larger influence on temperature than other factors such as natural changes.\" width=\"452\" height=\"289\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Net-Forcings.jpg 604w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Net-Forcings-300x192.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Net-Forcings-65x42.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Net-Forcings-225x144.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_Net-Forcings-350x224.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 452px) 100vw, 452px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4598\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Net effect of factors influencing warming.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>An effect that changes the planet can\u00a0trigger\u00a0feedback mechanisms that amplify or\u00a0suppress the original effect. A\u00a0<strong>positive\u00a0 feedback mechanism<\/strong>\u00a0occurs when the output or effect of a process <em>enhances <\/em>the original stimulus or cause. Thus, it increases the ongoing effect. For example, the loss of sea ice at the North Pole makes that area less reflective, reducing\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_758\">albedo<\/a>. This allows the surface air and ocean to absorb more energy in an area that was once covered by sea ice.\u00a0Another example is melting\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">permafrost<\/a>.\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">Permafrost<\/a>\u00a0<\/strong>is permanently frozen <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a> located in the high latitudes, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere. As the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> warms, more <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">permafrost<\/a> thaws, and the thick deposits of organic matter are exposed to oxygen and begin to decay. This oxidation process releases carbon dioxide and methane, which in turn causes more warming, which melts more <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">permafrost<\/a>, and so on and on.<\/p>\n<p>A\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_761\">negative feedback<\/a>\u00a0mechanism<\/strong>\u00a0occurs when the output or effect <em>reduces <\/em>the original stimulus or cause. For example, in the short term, more carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2<\/sub>) is expected to cause forest canopies to grow, which absorb more CO<sub>2<\/sub>. Another example for the long term is that increased carbon dioxide in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> will cause more carbonic acid and chemical weathering, which results in transporting dissolved bicarbonate and other ions to the oceans, which are then stored in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Global warming is evidence that Earth&rsquo;s energy budget is not balanced. Positive effects on Earth&rsquo;s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> are now greater than negative effects.<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-102\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-102\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"102\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"15.1 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4862\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4862\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-898\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4862\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 15.1 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">15.2 Evidence of Recent Climate Change<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> has changed often in the past due to natural causes (see <a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/14-glaciers\/#1451_Causes_of_Glaciations\">chapter 14.5.1<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/15-global-climate-change\/#153_Prehistoric_Climate_Change\">chapter 15.3<\/a>), the scientific consensus is that human activity is causing current very rapid <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change. While this seems like a new idea, it was suggested more than 75 years ago. This section describes the evidence of what most scientists agree is <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a><\/strong> or\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_763\">human-caused climate change<\/a>. For more information, watch this<a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/dquECwUfIQg?list=PL4Wzj82Z15gzrcsvrQxDPB1o4UAUxGbBM\">\u00a0six-minute video on climate change<\/a> by two professors at the North Carolina State University.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4871\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4871\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-899\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Evidence-for-Climate-Change-Youtube-QR-Code.png 1155w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4871\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Evidence for Climate Change\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/dquECwUfIQg?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h3><b>15.2.1 Global Temperature Rise<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The land-ocean <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> index, 1880 to present, compared to a base reference time of 1951-1980, shows ocean temperatures steadily rising. The solid black line is the global annual mean, and the solid red line is the five-year Lowess smoothing. The blue uncertainty bars (95 percent confidence limit) account only for incomplete spatial sampling.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4599\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4599\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15_tempgraph.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-900 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_tempgraph-300x159.png\" alt=\"Graph of temperature with time showing gradual increase of 1 degree Celcius in temperature over time with minor fluctuations within the large trend.\" width=\"300\" height=\"159\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_tempgraph-300x159.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_tempgraph-1024x544.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_tempgraph-768x408.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_tempgraph-65x35.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_tempgraph-225x119.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_tempgraph-350x186.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_tempgraph.png 1130w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4599\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Land-ocean temperature index, 1880 to present, with a base time 1951-1980. The solid black line is the global annual mean and the solid red line is the five-year Lowess smoothing. The blue uncertainty bars (95% confidence limit) account only for incomplete spatial sampling. The graph shows that Earth\u2019s temperature is rising.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Since 1880, Earth\u2019s surface-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> average has trended upward with most of that warming occurring since 1970 (see this NASA\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/svs.gsfc.nasa.gov\/4882\">animation<\/a>). Surface temperatures include both land and ocean because water absorbs much additional trapped heat. Changes in land-surface or ocean-surface temperatures compared to a reference <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">period<\/a> from 1951 to 1980, where the long-term average remained relatively constant, are called <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_765\">anomalies<\/a><\/strong>. A\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_765\">anomaly<\/a>\u00a0thus represents the difference between the measured <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0and the average value during the reference <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">period<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">Climate<\/a> scientists calculate long-term average temperatures\u00a0over thirty years or more which identified the reference <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">period<\/a> from 1951 to 1980.\u00a0Another common range is a century, for example, 1900-2000. Therefore, an\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_765\">anomaly<\/a>\u00a0of 1.25 \u2103 (34.3\u00b0F) for 2015 means that the average\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0for 2015 was 1.25 \u2103 (34.3\u00b0F) greater than the 1900-2000 average. In 1950, the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_765\">anomaly<\/a>\u00a0was -0.28 \u2103 (31.5\u00b0F), so this is -0.28 \u2103 (31.5\u00b0F) lower than the 1900-2000 average. These temperatures are annual average measured surface temperatures.<\/p>\n<p>This video figure of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_765\">anomalies<\/a> shows worldwide\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0changes since 1880.\u00a0 The more blue, the cooler; the more yellow and red, the warmer.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4864\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4864\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-901\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.1-Global-Temperature-Rise-Video-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4864\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div style=\"width: 300px;\" class=\"wp-video\"><video class=\"wp-video-shortcode\" id=\"video-927-1\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" autoplay preload=\"metadata\" controls=\"controls\"><source type=\"video\/mp4\" src=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/01\/15.2_GISTEMP_2015_sm.mp4?_=1\" \/><a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/01\/15.2_GISTEMP_2015_sm.mp4\">http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/01\/15.2_GISTEMP_2015_sm.mp4<\/a><\/video><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>In addition to average land-surface temperatures rising, the ocean has absorbed much heat. Because oceans cover about 70 percent of the Earth\u2019s surface and have such a high specific heat value, they provide a large opportunity to absorb energy. The ocean has been absorbing about 80 to 90 percent of human activities\u2019 additional heat. As a result, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> in the ocean\u2019s top 701.4 m (2,300 ft) has increased by -17.6\u00b0C (0.3\u2109) since 1969 (<a href=\"https:\/\/climate.nasa.gov\/climate_resources\/40\/\">watch this 3 minute <\/a>video by NASA JPL on the ocean\u2019s heat capacity). The reason the ocean has warmed less than the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, while still taking on most of the heat, is due to water\u2019s very high specific heat, which means that water can absorb a lot of heat energy with a small <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> increase. In contrast, the lower specific heat of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> means it has a higher <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> increase as it absorbs less heat\u00a0 energy.<\/p>\n<p>Some scientists suggest that <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a> greenhouse gases do not cause global warming because between 1998 and 2013, Earth\u2019s surface temperatures did not increase much, despite greenhouse gas concentrations continuing to increase. However, since the oceans are absorbing most of the heat, decade-scale circulation changes in the ocean, similar to La Ni\u00f1a, push warmer water deeper under the surface. Once the ocean\u2019s absorption and circulation is accounted for, and this heat is added back into surface temperatures, then <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> increases become apparent, as shown in the figure. Also, the ocean\u2019s heat storage is temporary, as reflected in the record-breaking warm years of 2014-2016. Indeed, with this temporary ocean-storage effect, the twenty-first century\u2019s first 15 of its 16 years were the hottest in recorded history.<\/p>\n<h3><b>15.2.2 Carbon Dioxide<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">Anthropogenic<\/a>\u00a0greenhouse gases, mostly carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2<\/sub>), have increased since the industrial revolution when humans dramatically increased burning fossil fuels.\u00a0These levels are unprecedented in the last 800,000-year Earth history as recorded in geologic sources such as ice cores. Carbon dioxide has increased by 40 percent since 1750, and the rate of increase has been the fastest during the last decade. For example, since 1750, 2040<sup>9<\/sup>\u00a0tonnes (2040 gigatons) of CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0have been added to the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>; about 40 percent has remained in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0while the remaining 60 percent has been absorbed into the land by plants and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a> or into the oceans. Indeed, during the lifetime of most young adults, the total\u00a0atmospheric\u00a0CO<sub>2<\/sub> has increased by 50 ppm, or 15 percent.<\/p>\n<p>Charles Keeling, an oceanographer with Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, California, was the first person to regularly measure atmospheric CO<sub>2<\/sub>. Using his methods, scientists at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, have constantly measured atmospheric CO<sub>2 <\/sub>since 1957. NASA regularly publishes these measurements at <u><a href=\"https:\/\/scripps.ucsd.edu\/programs\/keelingcurve\/\">https:\/\/scripps.ucsd.edu\/programs\/keelingcurve\/<\/a><\/u>. Go there <strong>now<\/strong> to see the very latest measurement. Keeling\u2019s measured values have been posted in a curve of increasing values, called the Keeling Curve. This curve varies up and down in a regular annual cycle, from summer when the plants in the Northern Hemisphere are using CO<sub>2<\/sub> to winter when the plants are dormant. But the curve shows a steady CO<sub>2 <\/sub>increase over the past several decades. This curve increases exponentially, not linearly, showing that the rate of CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0increase is itself increasing!<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-902 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1.jpg\" alt=\"Keeling curve graph of the carbon dioxide concentration at Mauna Loa Observatory\" width=\"928\" height=\"618\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1.jpg 928w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1-768x511.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1-350x233.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 928px) 100vw, 928px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The following Atmospheric CO<sub>2 <\/sub>video shows how atmospheric CO<sub>2<\/sub> has varied recently and over the last 800,000 years, as determined by an increasing number of CO<sub>2<\/sub> monitoring stations as shown on the insert map. It is also instructive to watch the video\u2019s Keeling portion of how CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0varies by\u00a0latitude.\u00a0This shows that most human CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0sources are in the Northern Hemisphere where most of the land is and where most of the developed nations are.<\/p>\n<div style=\"height: 0;padding-bottom: 56.25%\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_4872\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4872\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-903\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Pumphandle-2016-Youtube-QR-Code.png 1155w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4872\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Pumphandle 2016\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gH6fQh9eAQE?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3><b>15.2.3 Melting Glaciers and Shrinking Sea Ice<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4601\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4601\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.2_LandIceAntarctica.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-904\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_LandIceAntarctica-300x149.png\" alt=\"Graph shows decline of Antarctic ice mass by 2,000 gigatons from 2002 to 2016.\" width=\"400\" height=\"198\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_LandIceAntarctica-300x149.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_LandIceAntarctica-65x32.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_LandIceAntarctica-225x111.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_LandIceAntarctica-350x173.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2_LandIceAntarctica.png 737w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4601\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Decline of Antarctic ice mass from 2002 to 2016<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">Glaciers<\/a>\u00a0are large ice accumulations that exist year round on the land\u2019s surface. In contrast, icebergs are masses of floating sea ice, although they may have had their origin in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> (see Chapter 14). <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1517\">Alpine glaciers<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">ice sheets<\/a>, and sea ice are all melting. Explore melting <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> at NASA\u2019s interactive Global Ice Viewer). Satellites have recorded that Antarctica is melting at 1189 tonnes (118 gigatons) per year, and Greenland is melting at 2819 tonnes (281 gigatons) per year; 1 metric tonne is 1000 kilograms (1 gigaton is over 2 trillion pounds). Almost all major <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1517\">alpine glaciers<\/a> are shrinking, deflating, and retreating. The ice-mass loss rate is unprecedented\u2014never observed before\u2014since the 1940\u2019s when quality records for <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> began.<\/p>\n<p>Before\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a>\u00a0warming,\u00a0glacial\u00a0activity was variable with some retreating and some advancing. Now, spring\u00a0snow cover is decreasing, and sea ice is shrinking. Most sea ice is at the North Pole, which is only occupied by the Arctic Ocean and sea ice. The NOAA animation shows how perennial sea ice has declined from 1987 to 2015. The oldest ice is white, and the youngest, seasonal ice is dark blue. The amount of old ice has declined from 20 percent in 1985 to 3 percent in 2015.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4873\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4873\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-905\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Watch-25-Years-of-Arctic-Sea-Ice-Disappear-Youtube-QR-Code.png 1155w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4873\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Watch 25 Years of Arctic Sea Ice Disappear in 1 Minute\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Fw7GfNR5PLA?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h3><b>15.2.4 Rising Sea-Level<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>Sea level is rising 3.4 millimeters (0.13 inches) per year and has risen 0.19 meters (7.4 inches) from 1901 to 2010. This is thought largely to be from both\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> melting and thermal expansion of sea water. Thermal expansion means that as objects such as solids, liquids, and gases heat up, they expand in volume.<\/p>\n<p>Classic video demonstration (30 second) on thermal expansion with brass ball and ring (North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4868\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4868\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-906\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ball-and-Ring-Rate-of-Expansion-and-Contraction-Youtube-QR-Code-1.png 1155w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4868\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Ball and Ring: Rate of Expansion and Contraction\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/QNoE5IoRheQ?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h3><b>15.2.5 Ocean Acidification<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>Since 1750, about 40 percent of new <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a> carbon dioxide has remained in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. The remaining 60 percent gets absorbed by the ocean and vegetation. The ocean has absorbed about 30 percent of that carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide gets absorbed in the ocean, it creates carbonic acid. This makes the ocean more acidic, which then has an impact on marine organisms that secrete calcium <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a> shells. Recall that hydrochloric acid reacts by effervescing with limestone rock made of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">calcite<\/a>, which is calcium <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a>. A more acidic ocean is associated with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change and is linked to some sea snails (pteropods) and small protozoan zooplanktons\u2019 (foraminifera) thinning <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a> shells and to ocean coral reefs\u2019 declining growth rates. Small animals like protozoan zooplankton are an important component at the base of the marine ecosystem. Acidification combined with warmer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> and lower oxygen levels is expected to have severe impacts on marine ecosystems and human-harvested fisheries, possibly affecting our ocean-derived food sources.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4865\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4865\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-907\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2.5-Ocean-Acidification-Video-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4865\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div style=\"width: 300px;\" class=\"wp-video\"><video class=\"wp-video-shortcode\" id=\"video-927-2\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" preload=\"metadata\" controls=\"controls\"><source type=\"video\/webm\" src=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/01\/15.2_Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_NOAA_EVL.webm?_=2\" \/><a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/01\/15.2_Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_NOAA_EVL.webm\">http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/01\/15.2_Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_NOAA_EVL.webm<\/a><\/video><\/div>\n<h3><b>15.2.6 Extreme Weather Events<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>Extreme\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_756\">weather<\/a>\u00a0events such as hurricanes,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>, and heatwaves are increasing and becoming more intense. Since the 1980\u2019s, hurricanes, which are generated from warm ocean water, have increased in frequency, intensity, and duration and are likely connected to a warmer\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>. Since 1910, average\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>\u00a0has increased by 10 percent in the contiguous United States, and much of this increase is associated with heavy\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>\u00a0events. However, the distribution is not even, and more\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>\u00a0is projected for the northern United States while less\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>\u00a0is projected for the already dry southwest. Also, heatwaves have increased, and rising temperatures are already affecting crop yields in northern latitudes. Increased heat allows for greater moisture capacity in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, increasing the potential for more extreme events.<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-103\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-103\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"103\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"15.2 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4863\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4863\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-908\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4863\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 15.2 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">15.3 Prehistoric Climate Change <\/span><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4602\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4602\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Laurentide_Ice_Sheet_Extent.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-909 size-full\" title=\"Source: USGS. The maximum extent of glacial ice in the north polar area during Pleistocene time. {{PD-USGov-Interior-USGS}} http:\/\/pubs.usgs.gov\/gip\/continents\/map.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Laurentide_Ice_Sheet_Extent.jpg\" alt=\"Shows extent of last ice age with glacier covering most of Canada and some of the northern U.S. including Alaska, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Great Lakes, and parts of other states.\" width=\"250\" height=\"417\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Laurentide_Ice_Sheet_Extent.jpg 250w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Laurentide_Ice_Sheet_Extent-180x300.jpg 180w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Laurentide_Ice_Sheet_Extent-65x108.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Laurentide_Ice_Sheet_Extent-225x375.jpg 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 250px) 100vw, 250px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4602\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Maximum extent of Laurentide Ice Sheet<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Over Earth\u2019s history, the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0has changed a lot. For example, during the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_479\">Mesozoic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1243\">Era<\/a>, the Age of Dinosaurs, the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0was much warmer, and carbon dioxide was abundant in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. However, throughout the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_488\">Cenozoic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1243\">Era<\/a>, 65 million years ago to today, the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0has been gradually cooling. This section summarizes some of these major past\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0changes.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3><strong>15.3.1 Past Glaciations<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Through geologic history,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0has changed slowly over millions of years. Before the most recent Pliocene-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_491\">Quaternary<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciation<\/a>, there were other major\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciations<\/a>. The oldest, known as the Huronian, occurred toward the end of the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1257\">Archean<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1242\">Eon<\/a>-early\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1261\">Proterozoic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1242\">Eon<\/a>, about 2.5 billion years ago. The event of that time, the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1262\">Great Oxygenation Event<\/a>, was a major happening\u00a0(see Chapter 8) most commonly associated with causing that\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciation<\/a>. The increased oxygen is thought to have reacted with the potent greenhouse gas methane, causing cooling.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1261\">Proterozoic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1242\">Eon<\/a>, about 700 million years ago, had other\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciations<\/a>. These ancient <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1270\">Precambrian<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciations<\/a> are included in the\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_766\">Snowball Earth hypothesis<\/a><\/strong>.\u00a0Widespread global rock sequences from these ancient times contain evidence that <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> existed even in low-latitudes. Two \u00a0examples are limestone\u00a0rock\u2014usually formed in tropical\u00a0marine\u00a0environments\u2014and\u00a0glacial\u00a0deposits\u2014usually formed in cold climates\u2014have been found together from this time in many regions around the world. One example is in Utah. Evidence of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1653\">continental<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciation<\/a> is seen in interbedded limestone\u00a0and\u00a0glacial\u00a0deposits (diamictites) on Antelope Island in the Great Salt Lake.<\/p>\n<p>The controversial <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_766\">Snowball Earth hypothesis<\/a> suggests that a runaway <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_758\">albedo<\/a> effect\u2014where ice and snow reflect solar radiation and increasingly spread from polar regions toward the equator\u2014caused land and ocean surfaces to completely freeze and biological activity to collapse. Thinking is that because carbon dioxide could not enter the then-frozen ocean, the ice covering Earth could only melt when <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanoes<\/a> emitted high enough carbon dioxide into the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> to cause greenhouse heating. Some studies estimate that because of the frozen ocean surface, carbon dioxide 350 times higher than today\u2019s concentration was required. Because biological activity did survive, the complete freezing and its extent in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_766\">snowball earth hypothesis<\/a> are controversial. A competing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> is the <strong>Slushball Earth <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> <\/strong>in which some regions of the equatorial ocean remained open. Differing scientific conclusions about the stability of Earth\u2019s magnetic poles, impacts on ancient rock evidence from subsequent metamorphism, and alternate interpretations of existing evidence keep the idea of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_766\">Snowball Earth<\/a> controversial.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">Glaciations<\/a>\u00a0also occurred in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1271\">Paleozoic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1243\">Era<\/a>, notably the Andean-Saharan <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciation<\/a> in the late <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1277\">Ordovician<\/a>, about 440\u2013460 million years ago, which coincided with a major <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_755\">extinction<\/a> event, and the Karoo\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">Ice Age<\/a> during the Pennsylvanian <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">Period<\/a>, 323 to 300 million years ago. This <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciation<\/a> was one of the evidences cited by Wegener for his <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1653\">Continental<\/a> Drift <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> as his proposed Pangea drifted into south polar latitudes. The Karoo <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciation<\/a> was associated with an increase of oxygen and a subsequent drop in carbon dioxide, most likely produced by the evolution and rise of land plants<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4603\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4603\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15_cenozoic-t-2.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-large wp-image-910\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_cenozoic-t-2-1024x446.png\" alt=\"Graph showing decrease of average surface temperature from 23 degrees Celsius 50 million years ago to 12 degrees Celsius near present.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"446\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_cenozoic-t-2-1024x446.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_cenozoic-t-2-300x131.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_cenozoic-t-2-768x334.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_cenozoic-t-2-65x28.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_cenozoic-t-2-225x98.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_cenozoic-t-2-350x152.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15_cenozoic-t-2.png 1243w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4603\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Global average surface temperature over the past 70 million years.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>During the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_488\">Cenozoic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1243\">Era<\/a>\u2014the last 65 million years,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0started out warm and gradually cooled to today. This warm time is called the\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_767\">Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum<\/a>,<\/strong>\u00a0and Antarctica and Greenland were ice free during this time. Since the Eocene,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1654\">tectonic<\/a>\u00a0events during the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_488\">Cenozoic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1243\">Era<\/a> caused the planet to persistently and significantly cool. For example, the\u00a0Indian\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1669\">Plate<\/a>\u00a0and Asian\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1669\">Plate<\/a>\u00a0collided,\u00a0creating the Himalaya Mountains, which increased\u00a0the rate of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1754\">weathering<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1787\">silicate<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1765\">minerals<\/a>, especially\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_968\">feldspar<\/a>. Increased <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1754\">weathering<\/a>\u00a0consumes carbon dioxide from the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, which \u00a0reduces the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_762\">greenhouse effect<\/a>, resulting in long-term cooling.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4604\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4604\" style=\"width: 283px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Antarctic-Circumpolar.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-911\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Antarctic-Circumpolar.png\" alt=\"Map of bottom of earth showing Antarctic continent and an ocean current circulating clockwise around it.\" width=\"283\" height=\"279\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Antarctic-Circumpolar.png 283w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Antarctic-Circumpolar-65x64.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Antarctic-Circumpolar-225x222.png 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 283px) 100vw, 283px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4604\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Antarctic Circumpolar Current<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>About 40 million years ago, the narrow gap between the South American\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1669\">Plate<\/a>\u00a0and the Antarctica\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1669\">Plate<\/a>\u00a0widened, which opened the Drake Passage. This opening allowed the water around Antarctica\u2014the Antarctic Circumpolar Current\u2014to flow unrestrictedly west-to-east, which effectively isolated the southern ocean from the warmer waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. The region cooled significantly, and by 35 million years ago, during the Oligocene <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1245\">Epoch<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a>\u00a0had started to form on Antarctica.<\/p>\n<p>Around 15 million years ago,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1680\">subduction<\/a>-related\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanos<\/a> between Central and South America created the Isthmus of Panama, which connected North and South America. This prevented water from flowing between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and reduced heat transfer from the tropics to the poles. This reduced heat transfer created a cooler Antarctica and larger Antarctic\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a>. As a result, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">ice sheet<\/a>\u00a0expanded on land and water, increased Earth\u2019s reflectivity and enhanced the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_758\">albedo<\/a> effect, which created a\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_759\">positive feedback<\/a>\u00a0loop: more reflective\u00a0glacial\u00a0ice, more cooling, more ice, more cooling, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>By 5 million years ago, during the Pliocene <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1245\">Epoch<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">ice sheets<\/a> had started to grow in North America and northern Europe. The most intense part of the current <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciation<\/a> is the Pleistocene <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1245\">Epoch<\/a>\u2019s last 1 million years. The Pleistocene\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> varies significantly through a range of almost 10\u00b0C (18\u00b0F) on time scales of 40,000 to 100,000 years, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">ice sheets<\/a> expand and contract correspondingly. These variations are attributed to subtle changes in Earth\u2019s orbital parameters, called <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_748\">Milankovitch cycles<\/a><\/strong> (see Chapter 14). Over the past million years, the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciation<\/a>\u00a0cycles occurred approximately every 100,000 years,\u00a0with many\u00a0glacial\u00a0advances occurring in the last 2 million years\u00a0(Lisiecki and\u00a0Raymo, 2005).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4605\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4605\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-912 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"Graph showing the oxygen isotope record for last 5 million years with regular cycles. More pronounced glacial cycles are in the last 1 million years.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005-350x263.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-oxygen-isotope-record-Lisiecki-and-Raymo-2005.jpg 1058w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4605\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A Pliocene\u2010Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic \u03b418O records (Source: Lisiecki, L. E., &amp; Raymo, M. E. (2005). A Pliocene\u2010Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic \u03b418O records.\u00a0Paleoceanography,\u00a020(1).)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>During an\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">ice age<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">periods<\/a> of warming <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0 are called\u00a0<strong>interglacials<\/strong>; during interglacials, very brief <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">periods<\/a> of even warmer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> are called\u00a0<strong>interstadials<\/strong>. These warming upticks are related to Earth\u2019s\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0variations, like\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_748\">Milankovitch cycle<\/a>s, which are changes to the Earth\u2019s orbit that can fluctuate <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> (see Chapter 14). In the last 500,000 years, there have been five or six\u00a0interglacials, with the most recent belonging to our current time, the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_490\">Holocene<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1245\">Epoch<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>The two more recent\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0swings, the Younger Dryas and the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_490\">Holocene<\/a>\u00a0Climatic Optimum, demonstrate complex changes. These events are more recent, yet have conflicting information. The Younger Dryas\u2019 cooling is widely recognized in the Northern Hemisphere, though the event\u2019s timing, about 12,000 years ago, does not appear to be equal everywhere. Also, it is difficult to find in the Southern Hemisphere. The\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_490\">Holocene<\/a>\u00a0Climatic Optimum is a warming around 6,000 years ago; it was not universally warmer, nor as warm as current warming, and not warm at the same time everywhere.<\/p>\n<h3><b>15.3.2 Proxy Indicators of Past Climates<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>How do we know about past climates? Geologists use proxy indicators to understand past\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>. A\u00a0<strong>proxy indicator<\/strong>\u00a0is a biological, chemical, or physical signature preserved in the rock,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>, or ice record that acts like a fingerprint of something in the past. Thus, they are an <em>indirect <\/em>indicator of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>. An indirect indicator of ancient\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciations<\/a>\u00a0from the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1261\">Proterozoic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1242\">Eon<\/a> and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1271\">Paleozoic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1243\">Era<\/a> is the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1765\">Mineral<\/a>\u00a0Fork\u00a0Formation\u00a0in Utah, which contains rock\u00a0formations\u00a0of\u00a0glacial\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>\u00a0such as diamictite (<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1535\">tillite<\/a>). \u00a0This dark rock has many fine-grained components plus some large out-sized clasts like a modern\u00a0glacial\u00a0till.<\/p>\n<p>Deep-sea <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> is an indirect indicator of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change during the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_488\">Cenozoic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1243\">Era<\/a>, about the last 65 million years. Researchers from the Ocean Drilling Program, an international research collaboration, collect deep-sea <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> cores that record continuous <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> accumulation. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> provides detailed chemical records of stable carbon and oxygen <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1779\">isotopes<\/a> obtained from deep-sea benthic foraminifera shells that accumulated on the ocean floor over millions of years. The oxygen <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1779\">isotopes<\/a> are a proxy indicator of deep-sea temperatures and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1653\">continental<\/a> ice volume.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sediment Cores &#8211; Stable Oxygen Isotopes<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4606\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4606\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_sediment-core_hg.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-913 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Hannes Grobe, https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PS1920-1_0-750_sediment-core_hg.jpg#metadata\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg-300x290.jpg\" alt=\"Image of sediment core showing clear layering and vertical changes in color and composition.\" width=\"300\" height=\"290\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg-300x290.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg-1024x990.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg-768x743.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg-1536x1486.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg-65x63.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg-225x218.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg-350x339.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_sediment-core_hg.jpg 1558w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4606\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sediment core from the Greenland continental slope (Source: Hannes Grobe)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>How do oxygen\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1779\">isotopes<\/a>\u00a0indicate past\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>? The two main stable oxygen\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1779\">isotopes<\/a>\u00a0are\u00a0<sup>16<\/sup>O and\u00a0<sup>18<\/sup>O. They both occur in water (H<sub>2<\/sub>O) and in the calcium\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a>\u00a0(CaCO<sub>3<\/sub>) shells of foraminifera as both of those substances\u2019 oxygen component. The most abundant and lighter\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1779\">isotope<\/a>\u00a0is\u00a0<sup>16<\/sup>O. Since it is lighter, it evaporates more readily from the ocean\u2019s surface as water vapor, which later turns to clouds and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>\u00a0on the ocean and land. This evaporation is enhanced in warmer sea water and slightly increases the concentration of <sup>18<\/sup>O in the surface seawater from which the plankton derives the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a> for its shells. Thus the ratio of <sup>16<\/sup>O and\u00a0<sup>18<\/sup>O in the fossilized shells in seafloor <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> is a proxy indicator of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> and evaporation of seawater.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4607\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4607\" style=\"width: 446px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3-Ice_Age_Temperature.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-914\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Ice_Age_Temperature.png\" alt=\"Show clear chemical evidence for six glaciations over the past 450,000 years.\" width=\"446\" height=\"298\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Ice_Age_Temperature.png 564w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Ice_Age_Temperature-300x201.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Ice_Age_Temperature-65x43.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Ice_Age_Temperature-225x150.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Ice_Age_Temperature-350x234.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 446px) 100vw, 446px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4607\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Antarctic temperature changes during the last few glaciations compared to global ice volume. The first two curves are based on the deuterium (heavy hydrogen) record from ice cores (EPICA Community Members 2004, Petit et al. 1999). The bottom line is ice volume based on oxygen isotopes from a composite of deep-sea sediment cores (Lisiecki and Raymo 2005).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Keep in mind, it is harder to evaporate the heavier water and easier to condense it.\u00a0 As evaporated water vapor drifts toward the poles and tiny droplets form clouds and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>, droplets of water with <sup>18<\/sup>O tend to form more readily than droplets of the lighter form and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitate<\/a> out, leaving the drifting vapor depleted in <sup>18<\/sup>O. During geologic times when the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> is cooler, more of this lighter <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> that falls on land is locked in the form of glacial ice. Consider that the giant <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">ice sheets<\/a> were more than a mile thick and covered a large part of North America during the last <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">ice age<\/a> only 14,000 years ago. During <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciation<\/a>, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> thus effectively lock away more <\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">16<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O, thus the ocean water and foraminifera shells become enriched in <\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">18<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Therefore, the ratio of <\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">18<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O to <\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">16<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O (\ud835\udeff<\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">18<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">O) in calcium <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a> shells of foraminifera is a proxy indicator of past <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> cores from the Ocean Drilling Program record a continuous accumulation of these <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1228\">fossils<\/a> in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> and provide a record of glacials,\u00a0 interglacials and interstadials.<\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sediment Cores &#8211; Boron-Isotopes and Acidity<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Ocean acidity is affected by carbonic acid and is a proxy for past atmospheric CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentrations. To estimate the ocean\u2019s pH (acidity) over the past 60 million years, researchers collected deep-sea <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> cores and examined the ancient planktonic foraminifera shells\u2019 boron-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1779\">isotope<\/a> ratios. Boron has two <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1779\">isotopes<\/a>:\u00a0<sup data-preserve-html-node=\"true\">11<\/sup>B and\u00a0<sup data-preserve-html-node=\"true\">10<\/sup>B. In aqueous compounds of boron, the relative abundance of these two <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1779\">isotopes<\/a> is sensitive to pH (acidity), hence CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentrations. In the early <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_488\">Cenozoic<\/a>, around 60 million years ago, CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentrations were over 2,000 ppm, higher pH, and started falling around 55 to 40 million years ago, with noticeable drop in pH, indicated by boron <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1779\">isotope<\/a> ratios. The drop was possibly due to reduced CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0outgassing from ocean ridges,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanoes<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0metamorphic\u00a0belts, and increased carbon burial due to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1680\">subduction<\/a> and the Himalaya Mountains uplift. By the Miocene <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1245\">Epoch<\/a>, about 24 million years ago, CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0levels were below 500 ppm,\u00a0and by 800,000 years ago, CO<sup>2<\/sup>\u00a0levels didn\u2019t exceed 300 ppm.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Carbon Dioxide Concentrations in Ice Cores<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4608\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4608\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-915\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers-300x136.png\" alt=\"Image of ice core showing seasonal color changes like a tree rings.\" width=\"300\" height=\"136\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers-300x136.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers-65x29.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers-225x102.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers-350x158.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers.png 741w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4608\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">19 cm long section of ice core showing 11 annual layers with summer layers (arrowed) sandwiched between darker winter layers. (Source: US Army Corps of Engineers)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>For the recent Pleistocene\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1245\">Epoch<\/a>\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>,\u00a0researchers get a more detailed and direct chemical record of the last 800,000 years by extracting and analyzing ice cores from the Antarctic and Greenland\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">ice sheets<\/a>. Snow accumulates on these\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">ice sheets<\/a>\u00a0and creates yearly layers. Oxygen\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">isotopes<\/a>\u00a0are collected from these annual layers, and the ratio of\u00a0<sup>18<\/sup>O to\u00a0<sup>16<\/sup>O (\ud835\udeff<sup>18<\/sup>O) is used to determine <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> as discussed above. In addition, the ice contains small bubbles of atmospheric gas as the snow turns to ice. Analysis of these bubbles reveals the composition of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> at these previous times.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4609\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4609\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-916 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (Australia) - https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_518_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-300x205.jpg\" alt=\"Antarctic ice showing hundreds of tiny trapped air bubbles from the atmosphere thousands of years ago.\" width=\"300\" height=\"205\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-300x205.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-1024x701.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-768x526.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-1536x1051.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-2048x1401.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-65x44.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-225x154.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice-350x239.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4609\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Antarctic ice showing hundreds of tiny trapped air bubbles from the atmosphere thousands of years ago. (Source: CSIRO)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Small pieces of this ice are crushed, and the ancient air is extracted into a\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1226\">mass spectrometer<\/a>\u00a0that can detect the ancient\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u2019s chemistry. Carbon dioxide levels are recreated from these measurements. Over the last 800,000 years, the <em>maximum<\/em> carbon dioxide concentration during warm times was about 300 parts per million (ppm), and the minimum was about 170 ppm during cold stretches. Currently, the earth\u2019s\u00a0atmospheric\u00a0carbon dioxide content is over 410 ppm.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4610\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4610\" style=\"width: 818px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-917\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k.png\" alt=\"Graph shows concentrations of carbon dioxide around 290 ppm during warm periods and 190 ppm during glacial periods. Total time frame is about 800,000 years.\" width=\"818\" height=\"580\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k.png 818w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k-300x213.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k-768x545.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k-65x46.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k-225x160.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Co2_glacial_cycles_800k-350x248.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 818px) 100vw, 818px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4610\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Composite carbon dioxide record from last 800,000 years based on ice core data from EPICA Dome C Ice Core.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Oceanic Microfossils<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Microfossils, like foraminifera, diatoms, and radiolarians can be used as a proxy to interpret past <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> record. Different species of microfossils are found in the sediment <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1667\">core<\/a>\u2019s different layers. Microfossil groups are called assemblages and their composition differs depending on the climatic conditions when they lived. One assemblage consists of species that lived in cooler ocean water, such as in glacial times, and at a different level in the same sediment <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1667\">core<\/a>, another assemblage consists of species that lived in warmer waters.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4870\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4870\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-918\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Climatic-Evidence-From-Sediments-Youtube-QR-Code.png 1155w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4870\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-5\" title=\"Climatic Evidence From Sediments - Exploring the Science of Climate (3\/5)\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Yvu-g8BkkIg?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Tree Rings<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4611\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4611\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Tree.rings_.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-919\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Shows a tree cut in cross-section with tree rings. Each ring form in one year.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_-1024x766.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_-768x575.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_-1536x1149.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_-225x168.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_-350x262.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree.rings_.jpg 1800w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4611\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tree rings form every year. Rings that are farther apart are from wetter years and rings that are closer together are from dryer years.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Tree rings, which form every year as a tree grows, are another past <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> indicator. Rings that are thicker indicate wetter years, and rings that are thinner and closer together indicate dryer years. Every year, a tree will grow one ring with a light section and a dark section. The rings vary in width. Since trees need much water to survive, narrower rings indicate colder and drier climates. Since some trees are several thousand years old, scientists can use their rings for regional paleoclimatic reconstructions, for example, to reconstruct past <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>, vegetation, streamflow, sea-surface <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>, and other <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>-dependent conditions. Paleoclimatic study means relating to a distinct past geologic climate. Also, dead trees, such as those found in Puebloan ruins, can be used to extend this\u00a0proxy indicator by showing long-term droughts in the region and possibly explain why villages were abandoned.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4612\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4612\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a style=\"font-weight: bold;background-color: transparent;text-align: inherit\" href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50.gif\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-920 size-large\" title=\"Source: R.M.Hantemirov - https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Yamal50.gif\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-1024x224.gif\" alt=\"Tree ring data from last 7000 years showing average summer highs and lows fluctuating around a mean. Last few hundred years are slightly higher than normal.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"224\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-1024x224.gif 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-300x66.gif 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-768x168.gif 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-1536x336.gif 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-2048x448.gif 2048w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-65x14.gif 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-225x49.gif 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Tree-Ring-Temperature-Anamoly_Yamal50-350x77.gif 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4612\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">Summer [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"765\"]anomalies[\/pb_glossary] for the past 7000 years (Source: R.M.Hantemirov)<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pollen<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4613\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4613\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-921 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Dartmouth Electron Microscope Facility, Dartmouth College - https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized-300x228.jpg\" alt=\"Close up image of what pollen looks like.\" width=\"300\" height=\"228\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized-300x228.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized-1024x780.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized-768x585.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized-225x171.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized-350x266.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3_Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg 1228w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4613\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scanning electron microscope image of modern pollen with false color added to distinguish plant species.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Pollen is also a proxy <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> indicator. Flowering plants produce pollen grains. Pollen grains are distinctive when viewed under a microscope. Sometimes, pollen is preserved in lake <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> that accumulate in layers every year. Lake-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> cores can reveal ancient pollen. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1228\">Fossil<\/a>-pollen assemblages are pollen groups from multiple species, such as spruce, pine, and oak. Through time, via the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> cores and radiometric age-dating techniques, the pollen assemblages change, revealing the plants that lived in the area at the time. Thus, the pollen assemblages are a past <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> indicator, since different plants will prefer different climates. For example, in the Pacific Northwest, east of the Cascades in a region close to grassland and forest borders, scientists tracked pollen over the last 125,000 years, covering the last two <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciations<\/a>. As shown in the figure (Fig. 2 from reference Whitlock and Bartlein 1997), pollen assemblages with more pine tree pollen are found during <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciations<\/a> and pollen assemblages with less pine tree pollen are found during interglacial times.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Other Proxy Indicators<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Paleoclimatologists study many other phenomena to understand past climates, such as human historical accounts, human instrument records from the recent past, lake\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>, cave deposits, and corals.<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-104\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-104\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"104\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"15.3 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4866\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4866\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-922\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4866\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 15.3 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">15.4 Anthropogenic Causes of Climate Change<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As shown in the previous section, prehistoric <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0changes occur slowly over many millions of years. The\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0changes observed today are rapid and largely human caused. Evidence shows that\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0is changing, but what is causing that change? Since the late 1800s, scientists have suspected that human-produced, i.e. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a> changes in atmospheric greenhouse gases would likely cause\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0change because changes in these gases have been the case every time in the geologic past. By the middle 1900s, scientists began conducting systematic measurements, which confirmed that human-produced carbon dioxide was accumulating in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0and other earth systems, such as forests and oceans. By the end of the 1900s and into the early 2000s, scientists solidified the\u00a0<strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1733\">Theory<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">Anthropogenic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">Climate<\/a>\u00a0Change<\/strong> when evidence from thousands of ground-based studies and continuous land and ocean satellite measurements mounted, revealing the expected\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a>\u00a0increase. The\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1733\">Theory<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">Anthropogenic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">Climate<\/a>\u00a0Change is that humans are causing most of the current climate changes\u00a0by burning\u00a0fossil fuels\u00a0such as\u00a0coal,\u00a0oil, and\u00a0natural gas. Theories evolve and\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1679\">transform<\/a>\u00a0as new data and new techniques become available, and they represent a particular field\u2019s state of thinking. This section summarizes the scientific consensus of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0change.<\/p>\n<h3><b>15.4.1 Scientific Consensus<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The overwhelming majority of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0studies indicate that human activity is causing rapid changes to the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>, which will cause severe environmental damage. There is strong scientific consensus on the issue. Studies published in peer-reviewed scientific journals show that 97 percent of\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0scientists agree that\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0warming is caused from human activities. There is no alternative explanation for the observed link between human-produced greenhouse gas emissions and changing modern\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>. Most leading scientific organizations endorse this position, including the U.S. National Academy of Science, which was established in 1863 by an act of Congress under President Lincoln. Congress charged the National Academy of Science \u201cwith providing independent,\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1722\">objective<\/a>\u00a0advice to the nation on matters related to science and technology.\u201d Therefore, the National Academy of Science is the leading authority when it comes to policy advice related to scientific issues.<\/p>\n<p>One way we know that the increased greenhouse gas emissions are from human activities is with isotopic fingerprints. For example,\u00a0fossil fuels, representing plants that lived millions of years ago,\u00a0have a stable carbon-13 to carbon-12 (<sup>13<\/sup>C\/<sup>12<\/sup>C) ratio that is different from today\u2019s atmospheric stable-carbon ratio (radioactive <sup>14<\/sup>C is unstable). Isotopic carbon signatures have been used to identify <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a> carbon in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> since the 1980s. Isotopic records from the Antarctic <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">Ice Sheet<\/a> show stable isotopic signatures from ~1000 AD to ~1800 AD and a steady isotopic signature gradually changing since 1800, followed by a more rapid change after 1950 as burning of fossil fuels dilutes the CO<sub>2<\/sub> in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. These changes show the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0as having a carbon isotopic signature increasingly more similar to that of\u00a0fossil fuels.<\/p>\n<h3><b>15.4.2 Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">Anthropogenic<\/a> emissions of greenhouse gases have increased since pre-industrial times due to global economic growth and population growth. Atmospheric concentrations of the leading greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, are at unprecedented levels that haven\u2019t been observed in at least the last 800,000 years<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Pre-industrial level of carbon dioxide was at about 278 parts per million (ppm). As of 2016, carbon dioxide was, for the first time, above 400 ppm for the entirety of the year. Measurements of atmospheric carbon at the Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide Observatory show a continuous increase since 1957 when the observatory was established from 315 ppm to over 417 ppm in 2022. The daily reading today can be seen at <a href=\"https:\/\/www.co2.earth\/daily-co2\">Daily CO2<\/a>.\u00a0 Based on the ice <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1667\">core<\/a> record over the past 800,000 years, carbon dioxide ranged from about 185 ppm during <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">ice ages<\/a> to 300 ppm during warm times<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. View the <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">data-accurate NOAA animation below\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">of carbon dioxide trends over the last 800,000 years.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4614\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4614\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.4_Fig-1.7-from-Pachauri-et-al-2014.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-923 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Pachauri et al. 2014 - IPCC Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report - https:\/\/www.ipcc.ch\/pdf\/assessment-report\/ar5\/syr\/AR5_SYR_FINAL_All_Topics.pdf\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.7-from-Pachauri-et-al-2014-300x268.jpg\" alt=\"Pie chart shows\" width=\"300\" height=\"268\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.7-from-Pachauri-et-al-2014-300x268.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.7-from-Pachauri-et-al-2014-65x58.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.7-from-Pachauri-et-al-2014-225x201.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.7-from-Pachauri-et-al-2014-350x312.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.7-from-Pachauri-et-al-2014.jpg 725w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4614\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (gigatonne of CO2- equivalent per year, GtCO2-eq\/yr) from economic sectors in 2010. The circle shows the shares of direct GHG emissions (in % of total anthropogenic GHG emissions) from five economic sectors in 2010. The pull-out shows how shares of indirect CO2 emissions (in % of total anthropogenic GHG emissions) from electricity and heat production are attributed to sectors of final energy use. (Source: Pachauri et al. 2014)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>What is the source of these\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a>\u00a0greenhouse gas emissions?\u00a0Fossil fuel\u00a0combustion and industrial processes contributed 78 percent of all emissions since 1970. The economic sectors responsible for most of this include electricity and heat production (25 percent); agriculture, forestry, and land use (24 percent); industry (21 percent); transportation, including automobiles (14 percent); other energy production (9.6 percent); and buildings (6.4 percent). More than half of greenhouse gas emissions have occurred in the last 40 years, and 40 percent of these emissions have stayed in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. Unfortunately, despite scientific consensus, efforts to mitigate\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0change require political action.\u00a0Despite growing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>\u00a0change concern, mitigation efforts, legislation, and international agreements have reduced emissions in some places, yet the less developed world\u2019s continual economic growth has increased global greenhouse gas emissions. In fact, the years 2000 to 2010 saw the largest increases since 1970.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4615\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4615\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-924 size-large\" title=\"Source: Pachauri et al. 2014 Fig. 1.5 IPCC Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report - https:\/\/www.ipcc.ch\/pdf\/assessment-report\/ar5\/syr\/AR5_SYR_FINAL_All_Topics.pdf\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011-1024x396.jpg\" alt=\"Graph shows carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion increase notable around 1950 and continue to increase consistently until the graph ends in 2011.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"396\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011-1024x396.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011-300x116.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011-768x297.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011-65x25.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011-225x87.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011-350x135.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4_Fig-1.5-Pachauri-et-al.-2014-emissions-1850-2011.jpg 1477w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4615\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Annual global anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in gigatonne of CO2-equivalent per year (GtCO2\/yr) from fossil fuel combustion, cement production and flaring, and forestry and other land use (FOLU), 1750\u20132011. Cumulative emissions and their uncertainties are shown as bars and whiskers<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-105\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-105\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"105\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"15.4 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4867\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4867\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-925\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/15.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4867\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 15.4 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<p>Included in Earth Science is the study of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> of processes that affect surface environments and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> of the Earth. Recent changes in atmospheric <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> over intervals of decades have been observed. For Earth\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> to be stable, incoming radiation from the sun and outgoing radiation from the sun-warmed Earth must be in balance. Gases in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> called greenhouse gases absorb the infrared thermal radiation from the Earth\u2019s surface, trapping that heat and warming the atmosphere, a process called the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_762\">Greenhouse Effect<\/a>. Thus the energy budget is not now in balance and the Earth is warming. Human activity produces many greenhouse gases that have accelerated <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change. CO2 from fossil fuel burning is one of the major ones. While atmospheric composition is mostly nitrogen and oxygen, trace components including the greenhouse gases (CO2 and methane are the major ones and there are others) have the greatest effect on global warming.<\/p>\n<p>A number of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_759\">Positive Feedback<\/a> Mechanisms, processes whose results reinforce the original process, take place in the Earth <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>. An example of a PFM of great concern is <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">permafrost<\/a> melting which causes decay of melting organic material that produces CO2 and methane (both powerful greenhouse gases) that warm the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> and promote more <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">permafrost<\/a> melting. Two carbon cycles affect Earth\u2019s atmospheric CO2 composition, the biologic carbon cycle and the geologic carbon cycle. In the biologic cycle, organisms (mostly plants and also animals that eat them) remove CO2 from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> for energy and to build their body tissues and return it to the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> when they die and decay. The biologic cycle is a rapid cycle. In the geologic cycle, some organic matter is preserved in the form of petroleum and coal while more is dissolved in seawater and captured in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>, some of which is <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1680\">subducted<\/a> into the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1664\">mantle<\/a> and returned by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanic<\/a> activity. The geologic carbon cycle is slow over geologic time.<\/p>\n<p>Measurements of increasing atmospheric <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> have been made since the nineteenth century but the upward <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> trend itself increased in the mid twentieth century showing the current trend is exponential. Because of the high specific heat of water, the oceans have absorbed most of the added heat. That this is temporary storage is revealed by the record-breaking warm years of the recent decade and the increase in intense storms and hurricanes. In 1957 the Mauna Loa CO2 Observatory was established in Hawaii providing constant measurements of atmospheric CO2 since 1958. The initial value was 315 ppm. The Keeling curve, named for the observatory founder, shows that value has steadily increased, exponentially, to over 417 ppm now. Compared to proxy data from atmospheric gases trapped in ice cores that show a maximum value for CO2 of about 300 ppm over the last 800,000 years, the Keeling increase of over 100 ppm in 50 years is dramatic evidence of human caused CO2 increase and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change! As Earth\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> rises, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1519\">ice sheets<\/a> are shrinking resulting in sea level rise. Atmospheric CO2 is also absorbed in sea water producing increased concentrations of carbonic acid which is raising the pH of the oceans making it harder for marine life to extract <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a> for their skeletal materials.<\/p>\n<p>Earth\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> has changed over geologic time with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">periods<\/a> of major <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciations<\/a>. There was a high <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">period<\/a> in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_479\">Mesozoic<\/a> shown by fossils in high latitudes and the Western Interior Seaway covering what is now the Midwest. However, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> has been cooling during the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_488\">Cenozoic<\/a> culminating in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">Ice Age<\/a>. Since the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">Ice Age<\/a>, several proxy indicators of ancient <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> show that the rate and amount of current <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change is unique in geologic history and can only be attributed to human activity. Those who ignore the consequences of increasing global warming for our planet\u2019s future do so at the peril of our posterity!<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this Chapter.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-106\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-106\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"106\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Chapter 15 Review\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4869\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4869\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/03\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-926\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.15-Review-QR-Code.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4869\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the review quiz for Chapter 15 via this QR Code<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><b>References<\/b><\/h2>\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\">\n<ol>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Allen, P.A., and Etienne, J.L., 2008, Sedimentary challenge to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_766\">Snowball Earth<\/a>: Nat. Geosci., v. 1, no. 12, p. 817\u2013825.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Berner, R.A., 1998, The carbon cycle and carbon dioxide over <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1269\">Phanerozoic<\/a> time: the role of land plants: Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci., v. 353, no. 1365, p. 75\u201382.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Cunningham, W.L., Leventer, A., Andrews, J.T., Jennings, A.E., and Licht, K.J., 1999, Late Pleistocene\u2013<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_490\">Holocene<\/a> marine conditions in the Ross Sea, Antarctica: evidence from the diatom record: The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_490\">Holocene<\/a>, v. 9, no. 2, p. 129\u2013139.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Deynoux, M., Miller, J.M.G., and Domack, E.W., 2004, Earth\u2019s Glacial Record: World and Regional Geology, Cambridge University Press, World and Regional Geology.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Earle, S., 2015, Physical geology OER textbook: BC Campus OpenEd.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Eyles, N., and Januszczak, N., 2004, \u201cZipper-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1702\">rift<\/a>\u201d: a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1654\">tectonic<\/a> model for Neoproterozoic <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">glaciations<\/a> during the breakup of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1263\">Rodinia<\/a> after 750 Ma: Earth-Sci. Rev.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Francey, R.J., Allison, C.E., Etheridge, D.M., Trudinger, C.M., and others, 1999, A 1000\u2010year high precision record of \u03b413C in atmospheric CO2: Tellus B Chem. Phys. Meteorol.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Gutro, R., 2005, NASA &#8211; What\u2019s the Difference Between <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_756\">Weather<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">Climate<\/a>? Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/noaa-n\/climate\/climate_weather.html\">http:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/noaa-n\/climate\/climate_weather.html<\/a>, accessed September 2016.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hoffman, P.F., Kaufman, A.J., Halverson, G.P., and Schrag, D.P., 1998, A neoproterozoic <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_766\">snowball earth<\/a>: Science, v. 281, no. 5381, p. 1342\u20131346.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Kopp, R.E., Kirschvink, J.L., Hilburn, I.A., and Nash, C.Z., 2005, The Paleoproterozoic <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_766\">snowball Earth<\/a>: a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., v. 102, no. 32, p. 11131\u201311136.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Lean, J., Beer, J., and Bradley, R., 1995, Reconstruction of solar irradiance since 1610: Implications for <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> cbange: Geophys. Res. Lett., v. 22, no. 23, p. 3195\u20133198.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Levitus, S., Antonov, J.I., Wang, J., Delworth, T.L., Dixon, K.W., and Broccoli, A.J., 2001, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">Anthropogenic<\/a> warming of Earth\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>: Science, v. 292, no. 5515, p. 267\u2013270.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Lindsey, R., 2009, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">Climate<\/a> and Earth\u2019s Energy Budget\u202f: Feature Articles: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov\">http:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov<\/a>, accessed September 2016.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">North Carolina State University, 2013a, Composition of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">Atmosphere<\/a>:<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">North Carolina State University, 2013b, Composition of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">Atmosphere<\/a>: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/climate.ncsu.edu\/edu\/k12\/.AtmComposition\">http:\/\/climate.ncsu.edu\/edu\/k12\/.AtmComposition<\/a>, accessed September 2016.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Oreskes, N., 2004, The scientific consensus on <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change: Science, v. 306, no. 5702, p. 1686\u20131686.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Pachauri, R.K., Allen, M.R., Barros, V.R., Broome, J., Cramer, W., Christ, R., Church, J.A., Clarke, L., Dahe, Q., Dasgupta, P., Dubash, N.K., Edenhofer, O., Elgizouli, I., Field, C.B., and others, 2014, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">Climate<\/a> Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">Climate<\/a> Change (R. K. Pachauri &amp; L. Meyer, Eds.): Geneva, Switzerland, IPCC, 151 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Santer, B.D., Mears, C., Wentz, F.J., Taylor, K.E., Gleckler, P.J., Wigley, T.M.L., Barnett, T.P., Boyle, J.S., Br\u00fcggemann, W., Gillett, N.P., Klein, S.A., Meehl, G.A., Nozawa, T., Pierce, D.W., and others, 2007, Identification of human-induced changes in atmospheric moisture content: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., v. 104, no. 39, p. 15248\u201315253.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Schopf, J.W., and Klein, C., 1992, Late <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1261\">Proterozoic<\/a> Low-Latitude Global <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_747\">Glaciation<\/a>: the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_766\">Snowball Earth<\/a>, <i>in<\/i> Schopf, J.W., and Klein, C., editors, The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1261\">Proterozoic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1747\">biosphere\u202f<\/a>: a multidisciplinary study: New York, Cambridge University Press, p. 51\u201352.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Webb, T., and Thompson, W., 1986, Is vegetation in equilibrium with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a>? How to interpret late-<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_491\">Quaternary<\/a> pollen data: Vegetatio, v. 67, no. 2, p. 75\u201391.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Weissert, H., 2000, Deciphering methane\u2019s fingerprint: Nature, v. 406, no. 6794, p. 356\u2013357.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Whitlock, C., and Bartlein, P.J., 1997, Vegetation and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> change in northwest America during the past 125 kyr: Nature, v. 388, no. 6637, p. 57\u201361.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Wolpert, S., 2009, New NASA <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> maps provide a \u2018whole new way of seeing the moon\u2019: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/newsroom.ucla.edu\/releases\/new-nasa-temperature-maps-provide-102070\">http:\/\/newsroom.ucla.edu\/releases\/new-nasa-temperature-maps-provide-102070<\/a>, accessed February 2017.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., and Billups, K., 2001, Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> 65 Ma to present: Science, v. 292, no. 5517, p. 686\u2013693.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"media-attributions clear\" prefix:cc=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/ns#\" prefix:dc=\"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/\"><h2>Mention de la source du contenu multim\u00e9dia<\/h2><ul><li >The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17       <\/li><li >Atmosphere_gas_proportions       <\/li><li >Carbon Cycle       <\/li><li >Solar_Spectrum       <\/li><li >reflected_radiation       <\/li><li >surface_energy_balance       <\/li><li >Net-Forcings       <\/li><li >15.1 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >Evidence for Climate Change Youtube QR Code       <\/li><li >tempgraph       <\/li><li >15.2.1 Global Temperature Rise Video QR Code       <\/li><li >Keeling-Curve-1-10-2022-1       <\/li><li >Pumphandle 2016 Youtube QR Code       <\/li><li >LandIceAntarctica       <\/li><li >Watch 25 Years of Arctic Sea Ice Disappear Youtube QR Code       <\/li><li >Ball and Ring Rate of Expansion and Contraction Youtube QR Code       <\/li><li >15.2.5 Ocean Acidification Video QR Code       <\/li><li >15.2 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >Laurentide_Ice_Sheet_Extent       <\/li><li >cenozoic-t-2       <\/li><li >Antarctic-Circumpolar       <\/li><li >oxygen isotope record Lisiecki and Raymo 2005       <\/li><li >sediment-core_hg       <\/li><li >Ice_Age_Temperature       <\/li><li >GISP2_1855m_ice_core_layers       <\/li><li >Air_Bubbles_Trapped_in_Ice       <\/li><li >Co2_glacial_cycles_800k       <\/li><li >Climatic Evidence From Sediments Youtube QR Code       <\/li><li >Tree.rings_       <\/li><li >Tree Ring Temperature Anamoly_Yamal50       <\/li><li >Misc_pollen_colorized       <\/li><li >15.3 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >Fig 1.7 from Pachauri et al 2014       <\/li><li >15.4_Fig 1.5 Pachauri et al. 2014 emissions 1750-2011       <\/li><li >15.4 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >Ch.15 Review QR Code       <\/li><\/ul><\/div><div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">d\u00e9finition<\/span><template id=\"term_927_757\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_757\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Photo credit to Louis J. Maher, Jr.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1767\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1767\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Sedimentary rocks made of mineral grains weathered as mechanical detritus of previous rocks, e.g. sand, gravel, etc.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_761\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_761\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Martyn Gorman [<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AWater_Sinks%2C_Malham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_471804.jpg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_764\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_764\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><figure id=\"attachment_3413\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3413\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/bend2.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-699 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/bend2-1024x436.jpg\" alt=\"Entrenched meander of the Colorado River, downstream of Page, Arizona. High cliffs, that lead down to a river with narrow shores.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"436\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3413\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Entrenched meander of the Colorado River, downstream of Page, Arizona.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h1>11 Water<\/h1>\n<h4><b>KEY CONCEPTS<\/b><\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_3414\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3414\" style=\"width: 364px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/640px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-700\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/640px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"364\" height=\"273\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3414\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Example of a Roman aqueduct in Segovia, Spain.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38754758\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\">Describe the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38754758\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\">processes<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38754758\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\">\u00a0of the water cycle<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW197926192\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW197926192\">Describe drainage basins, watershed protection, and water budget<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW76897045 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW76897045 BCX0\">Describe reasons for water laws, who controls them, and how water is shared in the western U.S.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW36017110\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW36017110\">Describe zone of transport, zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production, zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a>, and equilibrium<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW97979262\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW97979262\">Describe stream landforms: channel types, alluvial fans, floodplains, natural levees, deltas, entrenched meanders, and terraces<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW13072825 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW13072825 BCX0\">Describe the properties required for a good aquifer; define confining layer water table<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"TextRun SCXW108299043 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW108299043 BCX0\">Describe three major groups of water contamination and three types of remediation<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">Describ<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\"> karst topography<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">, how\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">it is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">created,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">the landforms that characterize it<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">All life on Earth requires water. \u00a0The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1744\">hydrosphere<\/a> (Earth\u2019s water) is an important agent of geologic change. Water shapes our planet by depositing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1765\">minerals<\/a>, aiding <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1760\">lithification<\/a>, and altering rocks after they are lithified. Water carried by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1680\">subducted<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1659\">oceanic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1669\">plates<\/a> causes <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1686\">flux\u00a0melting<\/a> of upper <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1664\">mantle<\/a> material. Water is among the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1684\">volatiles<\/a> in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1750\">magma<\/a> and emerges at the surface as steam in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanoes<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3415\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3415\" style=\"width: 199px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/4650720277_e5ff788fc0_z.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-701\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/4650720277_e5ff788fc0_z-199x300.jpg\" alt=\"Mayan stone figure with a long elephant-like nose representing a water deity.\" width=\"199\" height=\"300\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3415\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Chac mask in Mexico.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Humans rely on suitable water sources for consumption, agriculture, power generation, and many other purposes. In pre-industrial civilizations, the powerful controlled water resources <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">1<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">2<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0 As shown in the figures, two thousand year old Roman aqueducts still grace European, Middle Eastern, and North African skylines<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0Ancient Mayan architecture depicts water imagery such as frogs, water-lilies, water fowl to illustrate the importance of water in their societies <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">3<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0 In the drier lowlands of the Yucatan Peninsula, mask facades of the hooked-nosed rain god, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Chac <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(or <em>Chaac)<\/em><\/span>\u00a0<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">are prominent on Mayan buildings such as the Kodz Poop (Temple of the Masks, sometimes spelled <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW77517608\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW77517608\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW77517608\">Coodz<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW77517608\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW77517608\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW77517608\">\u00a0Poop<\/span><\/span><\/span>) at the ceremonial site of Kabah. To this day government c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ontrolled water continues to be an integral part of most modern societies.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.1 Water Cycle<\/span><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3416\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3416\" style=\"width: 385px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.2watercycle-page.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-702\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.2watercycle-page-300x209.jpg\" alt=\"The water cycle.\" width=\"385\" height=\"268\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3416\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The water cycle.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The water cycle is the continuous circulation of water in the Earth's <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. During circulation, water\u00a0 changes between solid, liquid, and gas (water vapor) and changes location. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW39602649 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\">The processes involved\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW39602649 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\">in the water cycle\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW39602649 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\">are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>, and runoff.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP TrackedChange SCXW39602649 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Evaporation is the process by which a liquid is converted to a gas. Water evaporates when solar energy warms the water sufficiently to excite the water molecules to the point of vaporization. Evaporation occurs from oceans, lakes, and streams\u00a0and the land surface. Plants <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">contribute significant amounts of water vapor as a byproduct of photosynthesis called transpiration <\/span><\/span>that occurs through the minute pores of plant leaves<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">The term\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><strong><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">evapotranspiration<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/strong><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">refers to<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">these two sources of water entering the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">\u00a0and is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">commonly used by g<\/span><\/span><\/span>eologists.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW11741361 BCX0\">Water vapor is invisible. Condensation is the process of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">w<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">ater vapor\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">transitioning to a liq<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">uid<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">Winds carry<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\"> water vapor <\/span><\/span><\/span>in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> long distances. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">When\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">vapor<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">cools or\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">when air masses of different temperatures mix<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\"> water vapor may condense back into droplets of liquid water. <\/span><\/span><\/span>These water droplets usually form around a microscopic piece of dust or salt called condensation nuclei.<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW215532585\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">T<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">he<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">se<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\"> small d<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">roplets of liquid\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">suspended in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> become<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\"> visible <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">as<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">\u00a0in\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">a cloud.<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW82462577 BCX0\">Water droplets inside c<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">louds\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">collide and stick<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">\u00a0together<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">, growing into larger<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\"> droplets. O<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">nce<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW82462577 BCX0\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">droplets\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">become <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">big enough, they fall to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">E<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">arth as<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">rain, snow, hail, or sleet.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW82462577 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Once <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> has reached the Earth's surface, it can evaporate or flow as <strong>runoff<\/strong> into streams, lakes, and eventually back to the oceans. \u00a0Water in streams and lakes is called surface water.\u00a0 Or water can also <strong>infiltrate<\/strong> into the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a> and fill the pore spaces in the rock or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> underground to become <strong>groundwater<\/strong>. Groundwater slowly moves through rock and unconsolidated materials. Some groundwater may reach the surface again, where it discharges as springs, streams, lakes, and\u00a0 the ocean. Also, surface water in streams and lakes can infiltrate again to recharge groundwater. \u00a0Therefore, the surface water and groundwater systems are connected.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4554\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4554\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/The-Water-Cycle-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-703\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/The-Water-Cycle-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4554\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<p><i><\/i><\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-74\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-74\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"74\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.1 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4536\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4536\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-704\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4536\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.1 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.2 Water Basins and Budgets<\/span><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3417\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3417\" style=\"width: 226px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6-Hydrographic_basin.svg_.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-705\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6-Hydrographic_basin.svg_-300x296.png\" alt=\"Map view of a drainage basin with main trunk streams and many tributaries with drainage divide in dashed red line.\" width=\"226\" height=\"223\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3417\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map view of a drainage basin with main trunk streams and many tributaries with drainage divide in dashed red line.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The basic unit of division of the landscape is the <b>drainage basin<\/b>, also known as a\u00a0<b>catchment<\/b>\u00a0or <b>watershed. It<\/b> is the area of land that captures <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> and contributes runoff to a stream or stream segment <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW83290690\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW83290690\">4]<\/span>. <strong>Drainage divides<\/strong> are local topographic high points that separate one drainage basin from another <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW190510073\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW190510073\">5<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW190510073\">]<\/span>. Water that falls on one side of the divide goes to one stream, and water that falls on the other side of the divide goes to a different stream. Each stream, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> and streamlet has its own drainage basin. In areas with flatter topography, drainage divides are not as easily identified but they still exist<span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26145523\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW26145523\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26145523\">6<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26145523\">]<\/span>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3418\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3418\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1024px-EN_Bazinul_hidrografic_al_Raului_Latorita_Romania.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-706 size-medium\" title=\"By Asybaris01\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1024px-EN_Bazinul_hidrografic_al_Raului_Latorita_Romania-300x214.jpg\" alt=\"Oblique view of the drainage basin and divide of the Latorita River, Romania.\" width=\"300\" height=\"214\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3418\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Oblique view of the drainage basin and divide of the Latorita River, Romania.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The headwater is where the stream begins. Smaller <b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> <\/b>streams combine downhill to make the larger trunk of the stream. The <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a><\/strong> is where the stream finally reaches its end. The mouth of most streams is at the ocean. However, a rare number of streams do not flow to the ocean, but rather end in a <b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1777\">closed basin<\/a><\/b> (or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1777\">endorheic basin<\/a>) where the only outlet is evaporation. Most streams in the Great <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">Basin<\/a> of Western North America end in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1777\">endorheic basins<\/a>. For example, in Salt Lake County, Utah, Little Cottonwood Creek and the Jordan River flow into the endorheic Great Salt Lake where the water evaporates.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3419\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3419\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Ocean_drainage.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-707 size-full\" title=\"By Citynoise at English Wikipedia \" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ocean_drainage.png\" alt=\"Major drainage basins color coded to match the related ocean. Closed basins (or endorheic basins) are shown in gray.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"535\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3419\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Major drainage basins color coded to match the related ocean. Closed basins (or endorheic basins) are shown in gray.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW135665434 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW135665434 BCX0\">Perennial streams flow all year round. <\/span><\/span><b>Perennial streams<\/b> occur in humid or temperate climates where there is sufficient rainfall and low evaporation rates. \u00a0Water levels rise and fall with the seasons, depending on the discharge. <b>Ephemeral streams<\/b> flow only during rain events or the wet season. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">I<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">n arid climates<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0like Utah, many<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">streams<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">are<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">ephemeral.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">These\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">streams\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">occur in dry climates with low amounts of rainfall and high evaporation rates. Their channels are <span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\">often<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span>dry washes\u00a0or\u00a0arroyos\u00a0for much of the year and t<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">heir sudden flow causes <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1506\">flash floods<\/a> <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW92545693\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW92545693\">7<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW92545693\">]<\/span>.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Along Utah\u2019s Wasatch Front,\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW73071915\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\">the urban area extending north<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW73071915\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\">\u00a0to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW73071915\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\">south from Brigham City to Provo,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span>there are several watersheds that are designated as \u201cwatershed protection areas\u201d that limit the type of use allowed in those drainages in order to protect culinary water. \u00a0Dogs and swimming are limited in those watersheds because of the possibility of contamination by harmful bacteria and substances to the drinking supply of Salt Lake City and surrounding municipalities.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW230395698 BCX0\">Water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">in the water cycle\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">is very much like money in a personal budget. I<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">ncome\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">includes<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">inflow<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">E<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">xpenses\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">include<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">withdrawal, evaporation, and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">outflow. If the expenses outweigh the income, the water budget is not balanced<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">. In this case, <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">removed from\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">savings<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">, i.e. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">storage<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">if available.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">Reservoirs, snow<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">ice,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">moisture, and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">aquifers<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">all\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">serve<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">s\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">storage in a water budget.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0In\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">dry regions, the water is critical for sustaining human activities<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">. U<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">nderstanding and managing\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">the water budget<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\"> is an ongoing political and social challenge.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hydrologists create groundwater budgets within any designated area, but they are generally made for watershed (<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a>) boundaries, because groundwater and surface water are easier to account for within these boundaries. Water budgets can be created for state, county, or aquifer extent boundaries as well. \u00a0The groundwater budget is an essential component of the hydrologic model; hydrologists use measured data with a conceptual workflow of the model to better understand the water <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-75\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-75\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"75\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.2 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4537\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4537\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-708\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4537\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.2 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.3 Water Use and Distribution<\/span><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3420\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3420\" style=\"width: 431px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.4_Earth111Mod1Fig11.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-709\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.4_Earth111Mod1Fig11-300x274.png\" alt=\"Agricultural water use in the United States by state.\" width=\"431\" height=\"393\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3420\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Agricultural water use in the United States by state.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the United States, <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">1,<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">34<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">4 billion<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">L<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">\u00a0(<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>355 billion gallons) of ground and surface water are used each day, of which <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">2<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">8<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">8 billion<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">L<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>76 billion gallons) are fresh groundwater. \u00a0The state of California uses 16% of national groundwater <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW70803371\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW70803371\">8<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW70803371\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Utah is the second driest state in the United States. Nevada, having a mean statewide <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> of\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">31\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">c<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">m<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">\u00a0(<\/span><\/span><\/span>12.2 inches) per year, is the driest. \u00a0Utah also has the second highest per capita rate of total domestic water use <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">of <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">632.16\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">L<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">\u00a0(<\/span><\/span><\/span>167 gallonsL per <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">day per person <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW70803371\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW70803371\">8<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW70803371\">]<\/span>. \u00a0With the combination of relatively high demand and limited quantity, Utah is at risk for water budget deficits.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3421\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3421\" style=\"width: 610px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.4_trends-bar-2010.png\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-710\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.4_trends-bar-2010.png\" alt=\"Trends in water use by source\" width=\"610\" height=\"357\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3421\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Trends in water use by source<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><b>11.3.1 Surface Water Distribution<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\">Fresh water is a precious resource and should not be taken for granted, especially in dry<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span>Surface water makes up only 1.2% of the fresh water available on the planet, and 69% of that surface water is trapped in ground ice and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">permafrost<\/a>. \u00a0Stream water accounts for only 0.006% of all freshwater and lakes contain only 0.26% of the world\u2019s fresh water <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW253398420\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW253398420\">9<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW253398420\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Global circulation patterns are the most important factor in <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW37402210\">distributi<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\">ng<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\">\u00a0surface water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\">through\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span>. D<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ue to the Coriolis effect and the uneven heating of the Earth, air rises near the equator and near latitudes 60\u00b0 north and south. A<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ir sinks at the poles and latitudes 30\u00b0 north and south\u00a0 (see <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/13-deserts\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"FieldRange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun Underlined BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"Hyperlink\">Chapter 13<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a>). <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0Land masses near rising air are\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">more\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">prone to humid and wet climates<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">. Land masses near<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">sinking air<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">, which<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0inhibits<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">a<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">re prone to <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">dry conditions <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW166247515\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">10<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">11<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Prevailing winds, ocean circulation patterns such as the Gulf Stream\u2019s effects on eastern North America, rain shadows (the dry leeward sides of mountains), and even the proximity of bodies of water can affect local <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> patterns. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW133046679 BCX0\">When\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">this moist\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">air <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">collides with the nearby moun<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">tains causing it to rise and cool, the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">moisture\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">may <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">fall<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">out\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">as snow or rain on nearby areas<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">in\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">a phenomenon known as\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u201c<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">lake-effect<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u201d <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW2109339\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW2109339\">12<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW2109339\">]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3422\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3422\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/pageprecip_us3.png\"><img class=\"size-large wp-image-711\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/pageprecip_us3-1024x789.png\" alt=\"Distribution of precipitation in the United States.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"789\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3422\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Distribution of precipitation in the United States. The 100th Meridian is approximately where the average precipitation transitions from relatively wet to dry. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the United States, the 100th meridian <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">roughly marks the boundary between the humid and arid parts of the country. Growing crops west of the 100th meridian requires irrigation <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW93504855\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW93504855\">13<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW93504855\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. In the west, surface water is stored in reservoirs and mountain snowpacks <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW59410485\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW59410485\">14<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW59410485\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, then strategically released through a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> of canals during times of high water use.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some of the driest parts of the western United States are in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a> Province. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a> has multiple mountain ranges that are oriented north to south. \u00a0Most of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a> valleys in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a> are dry, receiving less than <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">30\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">c<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">m\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>12 inches) of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> per year. However, some of the mountain ranges can receive more than 1<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW239353099\">.52 m\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>60 inches) of water as snow or snow-water-equivalent. The snow-water equivalent is the amount of water that would result if the snow were melted, as the snowpack is generally much thicker than the equivalent amount of water that it would produce <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW74073591\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74073591\">12<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74073591\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.3.2 Groundwater Distribution<\/b><\/h3>\n<table class=\"center\" style=\"width: 723px;\" summary=\"Data table showing one estimate of global water distribution. Where and how much water is located in, on, and above the earth.\">\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"height: 86.7969px; background-color: #b8f2e8; border-color: #030303;\">\n<th style=\"height: 86.7969px; width: 253px; text-align: center;\">Water source<\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 86.7969px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">Water volume<\/p>\n<p>(cubic miles)<\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 86.7969px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">Fresh water (%)<\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 86.7969px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">Total water (%)<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Oceans, Seas, &amp; Bays<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">321,000,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">96.5<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 56px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Ice caps, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">Glaciers<\/a>, &amp; Permanent Snow<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">5,773,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">68.7<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">1.74<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Groundwater<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">5,614,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">1.69<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 -- Fresh<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">2,526,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">30.1<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">\u00a0\u00a00.76<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 -- Saline<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">3,088,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">\u00a0\u00a00.93<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">Soil<\/a> Moisture<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">3,959<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.05<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.001<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Ground Ice &amp; <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">Permafrost<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">71,970<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.86<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.022<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Lakes<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">42,320<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.013<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 -- Fresh<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">21,830<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.26<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.007<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 -- Saline<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">20,490<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.006<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">Atmosphere<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">3,095<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.04<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.001<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Swamp Water<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">2,752<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.03<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.0008<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Rivers<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">509<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.006<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.0002<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Biological Water<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">269<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.003<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.0001<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 56px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 668px;\" colspan=\"4\"><span class=\"smaller\" style=\"font-size: 8pt;\">Source: Igor Shiklomanov's chapter \"World fresh water resources\" in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources (Oxford University Press, New York)[zotpressInText item=\"{P7VGIQT4}\" format=\"%num%\" brackets=\"yes\" separator=\"comma\"]<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Groundwater makes up 30.1% of the fresh water on the planet, making it the most abundant reservoir of fresh water accessible to most humans. \u00a0The majority of freshwater, 68.7%, is stored in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> and ice caps as ice<span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74300989\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW74300989\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74300989\">9<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74300989\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0 As the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> and ice caps melt due to global warming, this fresh water is lost as it flows into the oceans.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-76\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-76\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"76\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.3 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4538\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4538\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-712\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4538\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.3 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.4 Water Law<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Federal and state governments have put laws in place to ensure the fair and equitable use of water. In the United States, the states are tasked with creating a fair and legal <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> for sharing water. <\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.4.1 Water Rights<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Because of the limited supply of water, especially in the western United States, states disperse a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> of legal <strong>water rights<\/strong> defined as a claim to a portion or all of a water source, such as a spring, stream, well, or lake<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0Federal law mandates that states control water rights, with the special exception of federally reserved water rights, such as those associated with national parks and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_976\">Native<\/a> American tribes, and navigation servitude that maintains navigable water bodies. Each state in the United States has a different way to disperse and manage water rights. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A person, entity, company, or organization, must have a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1773\">water right<\/a> to legally extract or use surface or groundwater in their state. \u00a0Water rights in some western states are dictated by the concept of prior appropriation, or \u201cfirst in time, first in right,\u201d where the person with the oldest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1773\">water right<\/a> gets priority water use during times when there is not enough water to fulfill every <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1773\">water right<\/a>. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Colorado River and its tributaries pass through a desert region, including seven states (Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, California), <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_976\">Native<\/a> American reservations, and Mexico. As the western United States became more populated and while California was becoming a key agricultural producer, the states along the Colorado River realized that the river was important to sustaining life in the West. \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">T<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">o guarantee\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">certain\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><em>perceived<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">water rights<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">, the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">se western states<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">recognized\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">that<\/span><\/span><\/span> a water budget was necesary for the Colorado River <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">Basin<\/a>. Thus was enacted the Colorado River Compact in 1922 to ensure that each state got a fair share of the river water. The Compact granted each state a specific volume of water based on the total measured flow at the time. \u00a0However, in 1922, the flow of the river was higher than its long-term average flow, consequently, more water was allocated to each state than is typically available in the river <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW136464619\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW136464619\">16<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW136464619\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Over the next several decades<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">lawmakers\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">have\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">made\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">many other agreements and modifications\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">regarding <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">the Colorado<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">River<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Compact,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">including\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">those\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">agreements\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">that brought about the Hoover\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Dam\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">(formerly Boulder Dam)<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Glen Canyon Dam<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\"> and a treaty between the American and Mexican governments. <span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Co<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">llectively<\/span>, the agreements\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">are referred to <\/span>as\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u201c<\/span>The Law of the\u00a0River\"<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">by the United States Bureau of\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Reclamation<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span>\u00a0 <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">Despite adjustments to the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">Colorado River Compact<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0many believe that\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">Colorado<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">River<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">is still <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">over-allocat<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">ed<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">as the <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">Colorado<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">River <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\">flow<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">no longer reaches the Pacific Ocean, its original terminus (base level).<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">Dams along<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">Colorado<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">River<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">have <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">caus<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">ed water to<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0diver<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">t<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0and evaporat<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">, creating<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">serious water budget concerns in the Colorado<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">River<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">B<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">asin. Predicted drought associated with global warming\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">is\u00a0<\/span>caus<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">ing<\/span>\u00a0additional concerns about\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">over-allocati<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">ng<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">the\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">Colorado<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">River<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">flow<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">in the future<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">.<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Law of the River highlights the complex and prolonged nature of interstate water rights agreements, as well as the importance of water.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4552\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4552\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/The-Colorado-River-Compact-of-1922-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-713\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/The-Colorado-River-Compact-of-1922-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4552\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW156675929\">The\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\">Snake Valley straddles the border of Utah and Nevada with<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\"> m<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\">ore of the irrigable land area lying on the Utah side of the border.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\"> <span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW156675929\">In 1989, the Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) submitted applications for water rights to pipe<\/span>\u00a0up to\u00a0<span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">191<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">,<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">189<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">,<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">70<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">7<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">cu m<\/span><\/span>\u00a0(<span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">155,000 ac<span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\">-ft<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">)<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\">\u00a0<\/span>of water per year\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\">(an acre-foot of water is one acre covered with water one foot deep)\u00a0<\/span>from\u00a0Spring, Snake,\u00a0Delamar, Dry Lake, and Cave <span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\">v<\/span>alleys to southern Nevada,\u00a0 mostly for Las Vegas<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW15730741\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW15730741\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\">17<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\">]<\/span><\/span>. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW130227827\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW130227827\">Nevada and Utah have attempted a comprehensive agreement, but negotiations have not yet been settled.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"LineBreakBlob BlobObject DragDrop BCX0 SCXW130227827\"><span class=\"BCX0 SCXW130227827\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.arcgis.com\/apps\/MapJournal\/index.html?appid=79199afd183e459596e6e21315159354\" width=\"100%\" height=\"800px\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4560\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4560\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Groundwater-Issues-Story-Map-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-714\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Groundwater-Issues-Story-Map-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4560\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this interactive activity via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h4><\/h4>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.npr.org\/templates\/story\/story.php?storyId=10953190\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">NPR story on Snake Valley<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4551\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4551\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Snake-Valley-NPR-Story-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-715\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Snake-Valley-NPR-Story-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4551\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this NPR Story via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><iframe title=\"NPR embedded audio player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/player\/embed\/10953190\/10956967\" width=\"100%\" height=\"290\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\"><\/iframe><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=C-bE-gOOJlU\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SNWA History<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=eCZ8KLrmUXo\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Dean Baker Story<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4553\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4553\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/The-Consequences-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-716\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/The-Consequences-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4553\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3><b>11.4.2 Water Quality and Protection<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Two major federal laws that protect water quality in the United States are the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act. \u00a0The Clean Water Act, an amendment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, protects navigable waters from dumping and point-source pollution. The Safe Drinking Water Act ensures that water that is provided by public water suppliers, like cities and towns, is safe to drink <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW47373929\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW47373929\">18<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW47373929\">]<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">The<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW193906268\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">Superfund<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">program ensures the cleanup of hazardous contamination<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0and can be applied to situations of surface water and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">contamination. It is part of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">Under this act, <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">state governments and<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">can\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">use the superfund to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">pay for <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">remediat<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">ion <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">of a <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">contaminated\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">site<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0and then file a lawsuit against the polluter\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">to recoup\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">the costs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW193906268\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">Or to avoid being sued, the <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">pollut<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">r <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">that caused the contamination may<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">take direct action\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">or provide funds <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">remediat<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\"> the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">contamination<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-77\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-77\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"77\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.4 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4539\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4539\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-717\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4539\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.4 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.5 Surface Water<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Geologically, a <\/span><b>stream <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">is a body of flowing surface water confined to a channel. Terms such as river, creek and brook are social terms not used in geology. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW52289593\">Streams<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">ero<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">d<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">and transport <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">, making<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">the<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">m the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0most important agents\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">of\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">the earth\u2019s surface<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">along with wave action <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW201920896\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW201920896\">(see <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/12-shorelines\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Chapter 12<\/a>)<\/span><\/span> <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">in<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">ero<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">ding\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">and transport<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">ing<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">.\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">They create much of the surface topography and are an important water resource<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW266511203 BCX0\">Several factors cause<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">streams<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">to erode and transport<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>, but the two main factors are<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">channel gradient and velocity.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">Stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">channel\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">gradient is the slope of the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"> stream usually expressed in meters per kilometer or feet per mile<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">. A steeper\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">channel\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">gradie<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">nt\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">promotes <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a>. When<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1654\">tectonic<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">forces\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun AdvancedProofingIssueV2 SCXW266511203 BCX0\">elevate<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0a mountain, the stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">gradient<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0increases,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">caus<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">ing<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"> mountain <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">to erode downward and deepen its channel eventually forming a valley.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">Stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">channel\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">velocity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">is the speed\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">at which channel water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">flow<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">s. Factors affecting channel v<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">elocity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"> include channel gradient which decreases downstream, discharge and channel size which <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">increase<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"> as tributaries coalesce, and channel roughness which decreases as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> lining the channel walls decreases in size thus<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">reducing friction<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\"> The combined effect of these factors is that channel velocity actually increases from mountain brooks to the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a> of the stream.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.5.1 Discharge<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>Stream size is measured in terms of <strong>discharge,<\/strong>\u00a0 the volume of water flowing past a point in the stream over a defined time interval. <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Volume is commonly measured in cubic units (length x width x depth), shown as feet<sup>3<\/sup><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (ft<sup>3<\/sup>) or meter<sup>3<\/sup> (m<sup>3<\/sup>)<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0Therefore, the units of discharge are cubic feet per second (<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ft<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">3<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\/sec<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> or cfs). <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">Therefore, the units of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">discharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">are\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cubic meters per second, (<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">m<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00b3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\/s or<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cms, or <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cubic feet per second (ft<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00b3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\/s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">ec<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0or\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 DefaultHighlightTransition SCXW114151887\">cfs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">). <\/span><\/span>Stream discharge increases downstream<b>.<\/b> Smaller streams have less discharge than larger streams. For example, the Mississippi River is the largest river in North America, with an average flow of about\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">16<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">990.1<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">1<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cms<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">600,000\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cfs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">) <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW148589328\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW148589328\">19]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">For comparison, the average<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">discharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">of<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0the Jordan<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">River<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">at Utah Lake is about\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">16.25<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cms<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">574\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cfs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">) <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW117893300\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW117893300\">20<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW117893300\">]<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW117893300\">\u00a0<\/span> <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">and<span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">for\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">annual<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0of the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">Amazon<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">River<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">the world\u2019s largest<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">river<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">annual<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">is about\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">175,56<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">5<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cms<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">6,200,000\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 DefaultHighlightTransition SCXW114151887\">cfs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">)<span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW23375202\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW23375202\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW23375202\">21<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW23375202\">]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Discharge can be expressed by the following equation: <\/span><\/p>\n<p><b><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Q = V A<\/span><\/b><span data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-leveltext=\"\uf0b7\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"21\" data-aria-posinset=\"1\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Q =\u00a0discharge\u00a0<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">cms<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">\u00a0<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">(or <\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">ft<sup>3<\/sup><\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">\/sec),<\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li data-leveltext=\"\uf0b7\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"21\" data-aria-posinset=\"2\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">A = cross-sectional area of the\u00a0stream\u00a0channel [width times average depth]<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\"> as <\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">m<\/span><sup><span data-contrast=\"auto\">2<\/span><\/sup><span data-contrast=\"auto\">\u00a0<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">(or in<sup>2<\/sup> or ft<\/span><sup><span data-contrast=\"auto\">2<\/span><\/sup><span data-contrast=\"auto\">),<\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li data-leveltext=\"\uf0b7\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"21\" data-aria-posinset=\"3\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">V = average channel velocity <\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">m\/s<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">\u00a0<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">(or ft\/sec) <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW36958835\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW36958835\">7<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW36958835\">]<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW25992323 BCX0\">At a given location along the stream, velocity varies <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">with\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">width<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">, s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">hape<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">, and depth <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">within the stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0as well<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">When<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">stream <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0narrows but<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">discharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">remains constant, the same volume of water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">must\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">flow<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0through\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0na<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">rrower space causing\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">velocity to increase, similar to putting a thumb over the end of a backyard water hose<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0In addition,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">d<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">uring\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW25992323 BCX0\">rain storms<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0or heavy snow melt,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">runoff<\/span> <\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">increase<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0which increases<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">stream<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">discharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">and<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0velocity.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW133448488 BCX0\">When the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">stream <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">\u00a0curves, the highest velocity will be on the outside of the bend.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">W<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">hen the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">stream <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">\u00a0is straight and uniform<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">ly dee<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">p<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">, the highest velocity is in the channel center <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">at the top of the water where it is the farthest from frictional contact with the <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">stream\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">channel\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">bottom and sides. <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW133448488 BCX0\">In hydrology, the <em>thalweg<\/em> of a rive<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">r is the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">line drawn that shows its natural progression<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">\u00a0and deepest channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">, as is shown in the diagram.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW133448488 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3423\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3423\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/meandering.png\"><img class=\"size-large wp-image-718\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/meandering-1024x376.png\" alt=\"Stream velocity is higher on the outside bend and the surface which is farthest from the friction of the stream bed. The inside of the bend is a shorter distance than the outside. Longer arrows indicate faster velocity. In a river bend, the fastest moving particles are on the outside of the bend, near the cutbank.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"376\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3423\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Thalweg of a river. In a river bend, the fastest moving water is on the outside of the bend, near the cutbank. Stream velocity is higher on the outside bend and the water surface which is farthest from the friction of the stream bed. Longer arrows indicate faster velocity (Earle 2015).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3><b>11.5.2 Runoff vs. Infiltration<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">F<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">actors\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">that\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">dictat<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0whether water will<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">infiltrate<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">into the ground or run off over the land <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">include <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">the amount, type, and intensity of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0the type and amount of vegeta<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">t<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">ion<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0cover<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0the slope of the land<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">and aspect of the land<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0preexisting conditions<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0and the type of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">in the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">i<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">nfiltrated\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">area<\/span><\/span>. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">High<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">intensity<\/span> <\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">rain will cause more<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">runoff<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">than the same amount of rain spread out over a longer duration.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">If the rain<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">falls<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">faster than the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a>\u2019s\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">properties <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">allow it to<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">infiltrate, then the water that cannot<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">infiltrate<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">becomes<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">runoff.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"> Dense vegetation can increase\u00a0infiltration, as the vegetative cover slows\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\">the\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\">water particle<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u2019<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\">s\u00a0<\/span>overland flow giving them more time to infiltrate.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>If a parcel of land has more direct solar radiation or higher seasonal temperatures, there will be less infiltration and runoff, as evapotranspiration rates will be higher.\u00a0 <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">As the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">land<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u2019s\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">slope <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">increases, so does<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">runoff,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">because<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">water is more inclined to move downslope than<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">infiltrate<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">into the ground.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Extreme examples are a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a> and a cliff, where water infiltrates much quicker into a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a> than a cliff that has the same <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a> properties. \u00a0Because saturated soil does not have the capacity to take more water, runoff is generally greater over saturated soil. Clay-rich <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a> cannot accept infiltration as quickly as gravel-rich <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.5.3 <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Drainage Patterns<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The pattern of tributaries within a region is called <strong>drainage pattern<\/strong>. They depend largely on the type of rock beneath, and on structures within that rock (such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_502\">folds<\/a> and faults). The main types of drainage patterns are dendritic, trellis, rectangular, radial, and deranged. <\/span><b>Dendritic patterns <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">are the most common and develop in areas where the underlying rock or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> are uniform in character, mostly flat lying, and can be eroded equally easily in all directions<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Examples are alluvial <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> or flat lying sedimentary rocks. <\/span><b>Trellis patterns<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> typically develop where sedimentary rocks have been folded or tilted and then eroded to varying degrees depending on their strength. The Appalachian Mountains in eastern United States have many good examples of trellis drainage<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><b>Rectangular patterns<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> develop in areas that have very little topography and a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> of bedding planes, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_986\">joints<\/a><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, or faults that form a rectangular network. A <\/span><b>radial pattern<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> forms when streams flow away from a central high point such as a mountain top or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcano<\/a>, with the individual streams typically having dendritic drainage patterns<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. In places with extensive limestone deposits, streams can disappear into the groundwater via caves and subterranean drainage and this creates a <\/span><b>deranged pattern <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW69782112\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW69782112\">4]<\/span><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3424\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3424\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/DrainagePattern.png\"><img class=\"size-large wp-image-719\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DrainagePattern-1024x199.png\" alt=\"Various stream drainage patterns.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"199\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3424\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Various stream drainage patterns.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><b>11.5.4 Fluvial Processes<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Fluvial<\/strong> processes dictate how a stream behaves and include factors controlling fluvial <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production, transport, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a>. Fluvial processes include velocity, slope and gradient, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a>, transportation, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a>, stream equilibrium, and base level. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Streams can be divided into three main zones: the many smaller tributaries in the source area, the main trunk stream in the floodplain and the distributaries at the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a> of the stream. Major stream systems like the Mississippi are composed of many source areas, many tributaries and trunk streams, all coalescing into the one main stream draining the region. The zones of a stream are defined as 1) the zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production (erosion), 2) the zone of transport, and 3) the zone of deposition. The <\/span>zone of sediment production<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is located in the <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a><\/strong> of the stream. In t<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">he zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> transport, there is a general balance between <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> of the finer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> in its channel and transport of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> across the floodplain<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Streams eventually flow into the ocean or end in quiet water with a delta which is a z<\/span>one of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">located at the <\/span><b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a> <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">of a stream<span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234245023\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW234245023\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234245023\">6]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The <\/span><b>longitudinal profile<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of a stream is a plot of the elevation of the stream channel at all points along its course and illustrates the location of the three zones <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW40744565\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW40744565\">22]<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Zone of Sediment Production\u00a0<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production is located in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> of a stream where rills and gullies erode <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> and contribute to larger <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> streams. These tributaries carry <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> and water further downstream to the main trunk of the stream. Tributaries at the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> have the steepest gradient;\u00a0 <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> there produces considerable <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> carried b the stream. Headwater streams tend to be narrow and straight with small or non-existent floodplains adjacent to the channel. Since the zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production is generally the steepest part of the stream, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> are generally located in relatively high elevations. The Rocky Mountains of Wyoming and Colorado west of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1653\">Continental<\/a> Divide contain much of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> for the Colorado River which then flows from Colorado through Utah and Arizona to Mexico.\u00a0 <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">Headwaters<\/a> of the Mississippi river <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> lie east of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1653\">Continental<\/a> Divide in the Rocky Mountains and west of the Appalachian Divide.<\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Zone of Sediment TransPORT\u00a0<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3425\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3425\" style=\"width: 466px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Stream_Load.gif\"><img class=\"wp-image-720\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Stream_Load-300x161.gif\" alt=\"A stream carries dissolved load, suspended load, and bedload.\" width=\"466\" height=\"250\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3425\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A stream carries dissolved load, suspended load, and bedload.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Streams transport <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> great distances from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> to the ocean, the ultimate depositional basins. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">Sediment<\/a> transportation is directly related to stream gradient and velocity. Faster and steeper streams can transport larger <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> grains. When velocity slows down, larger <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> settle to the channel bottom. When the velocity increases, those larger <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> are entrained and move again. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Transported <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> are grouped into <\/span>bedload<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span>suspended load<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, and <\/span>dissolved load as illustrated in the above image<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">Sediments<\/a> moved along the channel bottom are the <\/span><b>bedload <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">that<\/span><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> typically consists of the largest and densest particles. Bedload is moved by <\/span><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1498\">saltation<\/a> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(bouncing) and <\/span>traction <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(being pushed or rolled along by the force of the flow)<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Smaller\u00a0 particles are picked up by flowing water and carried in suspension as <\/span><b>suspended load<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The particle size that is carried in suspended and bedload depends on the flow velocity of the stream. <\/span><b>Dissolved load<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> in a stream is the total of the ions in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1783\">solution<\/a> from chemical weathering, including such common ions such as bicarbonate (-HCO<sup>3<\/sup><sub>-<\/sub><span style=\"font-size: 16px;\">),<\/span><sub>\u00a0<\/sub>calcium (Ca<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+2<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), chloride (Cl<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">-1<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), potassium (K<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+1<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), and sodium (Na<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+1<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). The amounts of these ions are not affected by flow velocity.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4546\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4546\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Bed-Load-Sediment-Transport-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-721\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bed-Load-Sediment-Transport-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4546\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3459\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3459\" style=\"width: 329px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/natural-lev\u00e9es.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-871\" title=\"Source: Physical Geology, Steven Earle https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2015\/08\/natural-lev%C3%A9es.png\" src=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/natural-lev\u00e9es.png#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"Profile of stream channel at bankfull stage, flood stage, and deposition of natural levee (Earle 2015).\" width=\"329\" height=\"324\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3459\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Profile of stream channel at bankfull stage, flood stage, and deposition of natural levee [zotpressInText item=\"{R6VDH77A}\" format=\"%num%\" brackets=\"yes\" separator=\"comma\"].<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A <\/span><b>floodplain <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">is the flat area of land adjacent to a stream channel inundated with flood water on a regular basis. Stream flooding is a natural process that adds <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> to floodplains. A stream typically reaches its greatest velocity when it is close to flooding, known as the <\/span><b>bankfull stage<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. As soon as the flooding stream overtops its banks and flows onto its floodplain, the velocity decreases. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">Sediment<\/a> that was being carried by the swiftly moving water is deposited at the edge of the channel, forming a low ridge or <\/span><b>natural lev\u00e9e. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In addition, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> are added to the floodplain during this flooding process contributing to fertile <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soils<\/a> <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW137018927\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW137018927\">4]<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Zone of SEDIMENT Deposition<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>D<\/strong><b>eposition <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">occurs when bedload and suspended load come to rest on the bottom of the stream channel, lake, or ocean due to decrease in stream gradient and reduction in velocity. While both <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> occur in the zone of transport such as on <strong>point bars<\/strong> and <strong>cut banks<\/strong>, ultimate <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> where the stream reaches a lake or ocean. L<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">andforms called <\/span><b>deltas <\/b>form where the stream enters quiet water <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">composed of the finest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> such as fine sand, silt, and clay. <\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Equilibrium and Base Level<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3426\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3426\" style=\"width: 434px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/HalfwayCreek_Long_Profile-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-722\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/HalfwayCreek_Long_Profile-1-300x190.jpg\" alt=\"Longitudinal Profile of a creek in Indiana, showing steep gradient in its headwaters and shallower gradients toward its mouth.\" width=\"434\" height=\"275\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3426\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Example of a longitudinal profile of a stream; Halfway Creek, Indiana<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">All three stream zones are present in the typical\u00a0<\/span><b>longitudinal profile<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of a stream which plots the elevation of the channel at all points along its course (see figure). All streams have a long profile. The long profile shows the stream gradient from headwater to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a>. All streams attempt to achieve an energetic balance among <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a>, transport, gradient, velocity, discharge, and channel characteristics along the stream\u2019s profile. This balance is called <\/span><strong>equilibrium, <\/strong>a state called <strong>grade<\/strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Another factor influencing equilibrium is <\/span><b>base level<\/b>, the<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> elevation of the stream's <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a> representing<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the lowest level to which a stream can erode. The ultimate base level is, of course, sea-level. A lake or reservoir may also represent base level for a stream entering it.\u00a0 The Great <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">Basin<\/a> of western Utah, Nevada, and parts of some surrounding states contains no outlets to the sea and provides internal base levels for streams within it.\u00a0 Base level for a stream entering the ocean changes if sea-level rises or falls. Base level also changes if a natural or human-made dam is added along a stream's profile. When base level is lowered, a stream will cut down and deepen its channel. When base level rises, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> increases as the stream adjusts attempting to establish a new state of equilibrium<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. A stream that has approximately achieved equilibrium is called a <strong>graded stream<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.5.5 Fluvial Landforms <\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Stream landforms are the land features formed on the surface by either <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a>. The stream-related landforms described here are primarily related to channel types. <\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Channel Types<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3126\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3126\" style=\"width: 465px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/BraidedWaimakariri.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-422\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/BraidedWaimakariri-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The river has many inter-braided channels.\" width=\"465\" height=\"349\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3126\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The braided Waimakariri river in New Zealand.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3124\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3124\" style=\"width: 466px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/MeanderingRio-cauto-cuba.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-421\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MeanderingRio-cauto-cuba-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The river wiggles back and forth.\" width=\"466\" height=\"350\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3124\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Air photo of the meandering river, R\u00edo Cauto, Cuba.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Stream channels can be straight, braided, meandering, or entrenched. The gradient, sediment load, discharge, and location of base level all influence channel type. <\/span><b>Straight channels<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> are relatively straight, located near the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a>, have steep gradients, low discharge, and narrow V-shaped valleys. Examples of these are located in mountainous areas.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Braided streams<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> have multiple channels splitting and recombining around numerous mid-channel bars<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. These are found in floodplains with low gradients in areas with near sources of coarse <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> such as trunk streams draining mountains or in front of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a>. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Meandering streams<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> have a single channel that curves back and forth like a snake within its <\/span>floodplain <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">where it emerges from its <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> into the zone of transport<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Meandering streams are dynamic creating a wide floodplain by eroding and extending meander loops side-to-side. The highest velocity water is located on the outside of a meander bend. \u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">Erosion<\/a> of the outside of the curve creates a feature called a <b>cut bank<\/b> and the meander extends its loop wider by this <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3429\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3429\" style=\"width: 406px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_CirqueMadeleine.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-723\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_CirqueMadeleine-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Sandy deposition at the inside of a bend (point bar) and erosion on the outside of the bend (cut bank) of a river in France.\" width=\"406\" height=\"305\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3429\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Point bar and cut bank on the Cirque de la Madeleine in France.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The <b>thalweg <\/b>of the stream is the deepest part of the stream channel. In the straight parts of the channel, the thalweg and highest velocity are in the center of the channel. But at the bend of a meandering stream, the thalweg shifts toward the cut bank. Opposite the cutbank on the inside bend of the channel is the lowest stream velocity and is an area of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> called a <b>point bar<\/b>.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In areas of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1654\">tectonic<\/a> uplift such as on the Colorado Plateau, meandering streams that once flowed on the plateau surface have become entrenched or incised as uplift occurred and the stream cut its meandering channel down into <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1023\">bedrock<\/a>. Over the past several million years, the Colorado River and its tributaries have incised into the flat lying rocks of the plateau by hundreds, even thousands of feet creating deep canyons including the Grand Canyon in Arizona.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3413\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3413\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/bend2.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-699 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/bend2-1024x436.jpg\" alt=\"Entrenched meander of the Colorado River, downstream of Page, Arizona. High cliffs, that lead down to a river with narrow shores.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"436\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3413\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">An entrenched meander on the Colorado River in the eastern entrance to the Grand Canyon.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3431\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3431\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1024px-GooseNeckStateParkPanorama.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-724\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1024px-GooseNeckStateParkPanorama.jpg\" alt=\"Panoramic view of incised meanders of the San Juan River at Gooseneck State Park, Utah.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"286\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3431\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Panoramic view of incised meanders of the San Juan River at Gooseneck State Park, Utah.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3432\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3432\" style=\"width: 452px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Lake_Powell_and_The_Rincon_Utah_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-725\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lake_Powell_and_The_Rincon_Utah_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The Rincon is an abandoned meander loop on the entrenched Colorado River in Lake Powell.\" width=\"452\" height=\"301\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3432\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Rincon is an abandoned meaner loop on the entrenched Colorado River in Lake Powell.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3433\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3433\" style=\"width: 332px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Landsat-image-of-lower-Mississippi-River-floodplain.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-726\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Landsat-image-of-lower-Mississippi-River-floodplain-254x300.jpg\" alt=\"Satellite image of lower Mississippi River floodplain\" width=\"332\" height=\"393\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3433\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Landsat image of lower Mississippi River flodplain<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Many fluvial landforms occur on a floodplain associated with a meandering stream. Meander activity and r<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">egular flooding contribute to widening the floodplain by eroding adjacent uplands. The stream channels are confined by <\/span><b>natural levees<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that have been built up over many years of regular flooding.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Natural levees can isolate and direct flow from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> channels on the floodplain from immediately reaching the main channel. \u00a0These isolated streams are called <\/span><b>yazoo streams<\/b> and<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> flow parallel to the main trunk stream until there is an opening in the levee to allow for a belated confluence<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4548\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4548\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/How-Is-A-Levee-Formed-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-727\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/How-Is-A-Levee-Formed-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4548\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">To limit flooding, humans build artificial levees on flood plains. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">Sediment<\/a> that breaches the levees during flood stage is called <\/span><b>crevasse splays<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and delivers silt and clay onto the floodplain. These deposits are rich in nutrients and often make good farm land. When floodwaters crest over human-made levees, the levees quickly erode with potentially catastrophic impacts.\u00a0 Because of the good <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soils<\/a>, farmers regularly return after floods and rebuild year after year.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3434\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3434\" style=\"width: 456px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Nowitna_river-with-approaching-cutoff.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-728\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Nowitna_river-with-approaching-cutoff-300x211.jpg\" alt=\"Meander nearing cutoff on the Nowitna River in Alaska\" width=\"456\" height=\"321\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3434\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Meander nearing cutoff on the Nowitna River in Alaska<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Through <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> on the outsides of the meanders and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> on the insides, the channels of meandering streams move back and forth across their floodplain over time<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. On very broad floodplains with very low gradients, the meander bends can become so extreme that they cut across themselves at a narrow neck (see figure) called a <strong>cutoff<\/strong>. The former channel becomes isolated and forms an <\/span><b>oxbow lake<\/b> seen on the right of the figure<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0Eventually the oxbow lake fills in with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> and becomes a <\/span>wetland <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">and eventually a <\/span><b>meander scar<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">S<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">tream meanders can migrate\u00a0and form oxbow lakes in a relatively short amount of time. Where stream channels form geographic and political boundaries, this shifting of channels can cause conflicts.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4557\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4557\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Why-Do-Rivers-Curve-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-729\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Why-Do-Rivers-Curve-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4557\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3435\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3435\" style=\"width: 356px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-730\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Alluvial_fan_in_Iran-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"Satellite image of alluvial fan in Iraq.\" width=\"356\" height=\"237\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3435\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Alluvial fan in Iraq seen by NASA satellite. A stream emerges from the canyon and creates this cone-shaped deposit.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>Alluvial fans<\/strong> are a depositional landform created where streams emerge from mountain canyons into a valley. The channel that had been confined by the canyon walls is no longer confined, slows down and spreads out, dropping its bedload of all sizes, forming a delta in the air of the valley.\u00a0 As distributary channels fill with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>, the stream is diverted laterally, and the alluvial fan develops into a cone shaped landform with distributaries radiating from the canyon <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a>. Alluvial fans are common in the dry climates of the West where ephemeral streams emerge from canyons in the ranges of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-78\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-78\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"78\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.6 Map of Mississippi River meander channels\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4541\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4541\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.5-Interactive-Map-of-Mississipi-River-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-731\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.5-Interactive-Map-of-Mississipi-River-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4541\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.5 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3436\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3436\" style=\"width: 417px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_Mississippiriver-new-01.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-732\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_Mississippiriver-new-01-300x275.png\" alt=\"The area that contributes to the tributaries of the Mississippi River.\" width=\"417\" height=\"382\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3436\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Location of the Mississippi River drainage basin and Mississippi River delta.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0A <strong>delta<\/strong> is formedwhen a stream reaches a quieter body of water such as a lake or the ocean and the bedload and suspended load is deposited<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. If wave <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> from the water body is greater than <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> from the river, a delta will not form. The largest and most famous delta in the United States is the Mississippi River delta formed where the Mississippi River flows into the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi River drainage basin is the largest in North America, draining 41%<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">of the contiguous United States <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW57176381\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW57176381\">24]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Because of the large drainage area, the river carries a large amount of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>. The Mississippi River is a major shipping route and human engineering has ensured that the channel has been artificially straightened and remains fixed within the floodplain. The river\u00a0 is now 229 km shorter than it was before humans began engineering it <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW57176381\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW57176381\">24]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Because of these restraints, the delta is now focused on one trunk channel and has created a \u201cbird\u2019s foot\u201d pattern<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The two <\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov\/IOTD\/view.php?id=8103&amp;eocn=image&amp;eoci=related_image\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">NASA images<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> below of the delta show how the shoreline has retreated and land was inundated with water while <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> was focused at end of the distributaries. These images have changed over a 25 year <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">period<\/a> from 1976 to 2001. These are stark changes illustrating sea-level rise and land <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1758\">compaction<\/a> of peat due to the lack of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> resupply <span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW213676927 BCX0\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW213676927 BCX0\">25]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-79\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-79\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"79\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.6_MissDelt.jpg\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4542\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4542\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.5-June-10-1976-Landsat-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-733\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.5-June-10-1976-Landsat-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4542\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this interactive activity via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The formation of the Mississippi River delta started about 7500 years ago when postglacial sea level stopped rising<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. In the past 7000 years, prior to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a> modifications, the Mississippi River delta formed several sequential lobes. The river abandoned each lobe for a more preferred route to the Gulf of Mexico. These delta lobes were reworked by the ocean waves of the Gulf of Mexico <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW144287476\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW144287476\">26]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0After each lobe was abandoned by the river, isostatic depression and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1758\">compaction<\/a> of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> caused <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> and the land to sink.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3437\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3437\" style=\"width: 464px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_QuakeLake.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-734\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_QuakeLake-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"Delta in Quake Lake Montana. Deposition of this delta began in 1959, when the Madison river was dammed by the landslide caused by the 7.5 magnitude earthquake.\" width=\"464\" height=\"309\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3437\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Delta in Quake Lake Montana. Deposition of this delta began in 1959, when the Madison river was dammed by the landslide caused by the 7.5 magnitude earthquake.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A clear example of how deltas form came from an earthquake. During the 1959 Madison Canyon 7.5 magnitude earthquake in Montana, a large <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_246\">landslide<\/a> dammed the Madison River forming Quake Lake <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">still there today <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11982677\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11982677\">27]<\/span>. A small <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> stream that once flowed into the Madison River, now flows into Quake Lake forming a delta c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">omposed of coarse <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> actively eroded from the mountainous upthrown block to the north. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Deltas can be further categorized as wave-dominated or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1480\">tide<\/a>-dominated. Wave-dominated deltas occur where the tides are small and wave energy dominates. An example is the Nile River delta in the Mediterranean Sea that has the classic shape of the Greek character (\u0394) from which the landform is named<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. A <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1480\">tide<\/a>-dominated delta forms when ocean tides are powerful and influence the shape of the delta. For example, Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta in the Bay of Bengal (near India and Bangladesh) is the world\u2019s largest delta and mangrove swamp called the Sundarban <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW49111969\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW49111969\">29]<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3438\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3438\" style=\"width: 221px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Sundarban-Delta-Bangladesh.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-735 size-medium\" style=\"font-weight: bold; background-color: transparent; text-align: inherit;\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sundarban-Delta-Bangladesh-221x300.png\" alt=\"Tide-dominated delta of the Ganges River\" width=\"221\" height=\"300\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3438\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sundarban Delta in Bangladesh, a tide-dominated delta of the Ganges River<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>At the Sundarban Delta in Bangladesh, t<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">idal forces create linear intrusions of seawater into the delta. This delta also holds the world\u2019s largest mangrove swamp<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3439\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3439\" style=\"width: 698px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit-e1491789834381.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-736\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit-e1491789834381.jpg\" alt=\"The Nile Delta is a triangular patch of green in an otherwise sandy brown area.\" width=\"698\" height=\"259\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3439\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nile Delta showing its classic \u201cdelta\u201d shape.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3440\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3440\" style=\"width: 420px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_Logan_Bonneville_Delta.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-737\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_Logan_Bonneville_Delta-237x300.jpg\" alt=\"Contours of the Logan Delta, incised by the Logan River.\" width=\"420\" height=\"531\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3440\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of the Logan Delta (Gilbert 1890).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Lake Bonneville was a large, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_746\">pluvial lake<\/a> that occupied the western half of Utah and parts of eastern Nevada from about 30,000 to 12,000 years ago<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The lake filled to a maximum elevation as great as approximately 5100 feet above mean sea level, filling the basins, leaving the mountains exposed, many as islands. The presence of the lake allowed for <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> of both fine grained lake mud and silt and coarse gravels from the mountains. Variations in lake level were controlled by regional <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> and a catastrophic failure of Lake Bonneville\u2019s main outlet, Red Rock Pass\u00a0<span class=\"TextRun Strikethrough BCX0 SCXW10377017\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10377017\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10377017\">31]<\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0 during extended <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">periods<\/a> of time in which the lake level remained stable, wave-cut terraces were produced that can be seen today on the flanks of many mountains in the region.\u00a0 Significant deltas formed at the mouths of major canyons in Salt Lake, Cache, and other Utah valleys. \u00a0The Great Salt Lake is the remnant of Lake Bonneville and cities have built up on these delta deposits.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3441\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3441\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/ggk03413-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-large wp-image-3441\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/ggk03413-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Deltaic deposits of Lake Bonneville near Logan, Utah.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"665\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3441\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Deltaic deposits of Lake Bonneville near Logan, Utah; wave cut terraces can be seen on the mountain slope.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><b>Stream terraces<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> are remnants of older floodplains located above the existing floodplain and river. Like entrenched meanders, stream terraces form when uplift occurs or base level drops and streams erode downward, their meanders widening a new flood plain. Stream terraces can also form from extreme flood events associated with retreating <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a>. A classic example of multiple stream terraces are along the Snake River in Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW162599196\">[3<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW162599196\">2; 33]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\" border=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%;\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_3443\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3443\" style=\"width: 375px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_TetonTerraceDSC_0076-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-3443\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_TetonTerraceDSC_0076-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Landscape with river cutting into plane. Three different levels of flat surfaces that represent different base levels.\" width=\"375\" height=\"250\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3443\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Terraces along the Snake River, Wyoming.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%;\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_3444\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3444\" style=\"width: 333px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_StreamTerrace_IMGP4422.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-740\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_StreamTerrace_IMGP4422-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"River along several different levels of flat floodplains\" width=\"333\" height=\"250\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3444\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Terraces in Glen Roy, Scotland<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-80\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-80\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"80\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.5 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4540\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4540\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.5-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-741\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.5-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4540\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.5 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.6 Groundwater<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Groundwater is an important source of freshwater. \u00a0It can be found at varying depths in all places under the ground, but is limited by extractable quantity and quality.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4555\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4555\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/What-is-an-Aquifer-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-742\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/What-is-an-Aquifer-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4555\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><b>11.6.1 Porosity and Permeability<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW254024023\">An\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><strong><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/strong><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0is a\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">rock unit<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">that contains extractable<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">ground<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">water.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">A good aquifer must be both <strong>porous<\/strong> and <strong>permeable<\/strong>. P<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">orosity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">is the <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">space between grains <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">that can hold <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">water, <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">expressed as the percentage of open space in the total volume of the rock<\/span>.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\"> P<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">ermeability comes from connectivity of the spaces that <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">allows water to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">move in the aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Porosity can occur as primary porosity, as space between sand grains or vesicles in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanic<\/a> rocks, or secondary porosity as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_986\">fractures<\/a> or dissolved spaces in\u00a0 rock). <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1758\">Compaction<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1759\">cementation<\/a> during <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1760\">lithification<\/a> of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> reduces porosity (see chapter <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/5-weathering-erosion-and-sedimentary-rocks\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">5.3<\/a>).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A combination of a place to contain water (porosity) and the ability to move water (permeability) makes a good <strong>aquifer<\/strong>\u2014a rock unit or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> that allows extraction of groundwater. \u00a0Well-sorted <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> have higher porosity because there are not smaller <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> particles filling in the spaces between the larger particles. Shales made of clays generally have high porosity, but the pores are poorly connected, thereby causing low permeability. \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4549\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4549\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Porosity-and-Permeability-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-743\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Porosity-and-Permeability-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4549\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW26704983\">Wh<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">ile permeability is a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">n important<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u00a0measure of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">a\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">porous<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u00a0material<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u2019s ability to trans<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">mit<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u00a0water<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">hydraulic conductivity is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">more commonly use<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">d by geologists<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u00a0to measure\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">how easily a fluid is transmitted<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><b>Hydraulic conductivity<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">measure<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">s both the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">permeability of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">porous\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">material\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">the properties\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">of the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">water, or whate<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">ver\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">fluid<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">being transmitted like oil or gas<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">Because\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">hydraulic conductivity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">also measures the properties of the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0fluid<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">, such as viscosity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">it <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">is used by <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">both<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">petroleum<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">geologists and\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">hydrogeologists to describe\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">both<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">the production capability of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">oil<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">reservoirs<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">aquifers. High<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">hydraulic conductivity<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">indicates\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">that fluid transmits rapidly <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">through an<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">aquifer.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.6.2 Aquifers\u00a0<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW76684060\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW76684060\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW76684060\">Aquifers are rock layers with sufficient porosity and permeability to allow water to be both contained and move within them. For rock or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span> to be considered an aquifer, its pores must be at least partially filled with water and it must be permeable enough to transmit water. Drinking water aquifers must also contain <strong>potable <\/strong>water. Aquifers can vary dramatically in scale, from spanning several formations covering large regions to being a local formation in a limited area. Aquifers adequate for water supply are both permeable, porous, and potable.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.6.3 Groundwater Flow<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3445\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3445\" style=\"width: 320px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Vadose_zone.gif\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-744\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Vadose_zone.gif\" alt=\"The groundwater table is where the pores in an aquifer are completely saturated.\" width=\"320\" height=\"243\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3445\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Zone of saturation.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When surface water infiltrates or seeps into the ground, it usually enters the unsaturated zone also called the vadose zone, or zone of aeration. \u00a0The <\/span><b>vadose zone<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is the volume of geologic material between the land surface and the zone of saturation <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">where the pore spaces are not completely filled with water <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW263278408\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW263278408\">34<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW263278408\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Plant roots inhabit the upper vadose zone and fluid pressure in the pores is less than atmospheric pressure. \u00a0Below the vadose zone is the capillary fringe. \u00a0Capillary fringe is the usually thin zone below the vadose zone where the pores are completely filled with water (<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturation<\/a>), but the fluid pressure is less than atmospheric pressure. \u00a0The pores in the capillary fringe are filled because of capillary action, which occurs because of a combination of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1771\">adhesion<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1770\">cohesion<\/a>. Below the capillary fringe is the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturated<\/a> zone or phreatic zone, where the pores are completely <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturated<\/a> and the fluid in the pores is at or above atmospheric pressure<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The interface between the capillary fringe and the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturated<\/a> zone marks the location of the water table.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong>W<\/strong><b>ells<\/b>\u00a0are conduits that extend into the ground with openings to the aquifers, to extract from, measure, and sometimes add water to the aquifer. Wells are generally the way that geologists and hydrologist measure the depth to groundwater from the land surface as well as withdraw water from aquifers.<\/p>\n<p>Water is found throughout the pore spaces in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1023\">bedrock<\/a>. The <b>water table<\/b> is the area below which the pores are fully <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturated<\/a> with water. The simplest case of a water table is when the aquifer is unconfined, meaning it does not have a confining layer above it. Confining layers can pressurize aquifers by trapping water that is recharged at a higher elevation underneath the confining layer, allowing for a potentiometric surface higher than the top of the aquifer, and sometimes higher than the land surface.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3446\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3446\" style=\"width: 550px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/wa-aquifer_types-1.gif\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-745\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/wa-aquifer_types-1.gif\" alt=\"In a confined aquifer, the potentiometric surface can rise above the ground.\" width=\"550\" height=\"325\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3446\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Potentiometric surface and water table in an aquifer system.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A <\/span><b>confining layer<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is a low permeability layer above and\/or below an aquifer that restricts the water from moving in and out of the aquifer. \u00a0Confining layers include <\/span><b>aquicludes<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which are so impermeable that no water travels through them, and <\/span><b>aquitards<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which significantly decrease the speed at which water travels through them. <\/span>The <b>potentiometric surface<\/b> represents the height that water would rise in a well penetrating the pressurized aquifer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>. Breaches in the pressurized aquifer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>, like faults or wells, can cause <b>springs<\/b> or <b>flowing wells<\/b>, also known as <b>artesian wells<\/b>.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The water table will generally mirror surface topography, though more subdued, because hydrostatic pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure along the surface of the water table. \u00a0If the water table intersects the ground surface the result will be water at the surface in the form of a gaining stream, spring, lake, or wetland. The water table intersects the channel for <strong>gaining streams<\/strong> which then gains water from the water table.\u00a0 The channels for <strong>losing streams<\/strong> lie below the water table, thus losing streams lose water to the water table.\u00a0 Losing streams may be seasonal during a dry season or <strong>ephemeral<\/strong> in dry climates where they may normally be dry and carry water only after rain storms. Ephemeral streams pose a serious danger of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1506\">flash flooding<\/a>\u00a0in dry climates.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4556\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4556\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Where-is-the-Water-Table-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-746\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Where-is-the-Water-Table-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4556\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mentioned in the video is the <a href=\"https:\/\/groundwaterwatch.usgs.gov\/default.asp\">USGS Groundwater Watch<\/a> site.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><i><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW96173255 BCX0\">Using wells, g<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">eologists measure the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">water table<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u2019s\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">hei<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">ght <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">potentiometric surface<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">Graphs of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">depth <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">to <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">over<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">time<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">are\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">known as <strong>hydrographs<\/strong> and<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">sho<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">w <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">changes in the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">water table<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">over time.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">W<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">ell<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">water level\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">controlled by many factors <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">and <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">can change very frequently, even <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">every minute<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">, seasonally, and over longer<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">periods<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">of time<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span> \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3448\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3448\" style=\"width: 432px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/USGS.404356111503901.143976.72019.00002.19750718.19890930..0..pres-1.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-747\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/USGS.404356111503901.143976.72019.00002.19750718.19890930..0..pres-1.png\" alt=\"A hydrograph is a line graph that shows depth to water with time.\" width=\"432\" height=\"320\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3448\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Example of a hydrograph<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW257587516\">In 1856,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">French engineer\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">Henry Darcy developed a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> to <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">show <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">how discharge through a porous medium is controlled by permeability, pressure, and cross<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">sectional area.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">To\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">prove<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">this<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">\u00a0relationship<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">Darcy <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1731\">experiment<\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">ed with<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\"> tubes of packed <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> with water running through them<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">The results<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">o<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">f his experiments<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">empirica<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">l<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">ly\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">established<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">a\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1724\">quantitative<\/a> measure of hydraulic conductivity and discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">\u00a0that is known as Darcy\u2019s <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">l<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">aw. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>The relationships described by Darcy\u2019s Law have close similarities to Fourier's law in the field of heat conduction, Ohm's law in the field of electrical networks, or Fick's law in diffusion <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1733\">theory<\/a>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Q=KA(<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0394<strong>h\/<\/strong><\/span>L)<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3449\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3449\" style=\"width: 431px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Darcys_Law.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-748\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Darcys_Law.png\" alt=\"Cylinder with a length (L), cross-sectional area (A), which is filled with a material of a specific hydraulic conductivity.\" width=\"431\" height=\"215\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3449\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pipe showing apparatus that would demonstrate Darcy\u2019s Law. \u0394h would be measured across L from a to b.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Q = flow (volume\/time)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">K = hydraulic conductivity (length\/time<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A = cross-sectional area of flow (area)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0394h = change in pressure head (pressure difference)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">L = distance between pressure (h) measurements (length)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0394h\/<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">L is commonly referred to as the hydraulic gradient<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW247876017 BCX0\">Pumping water from an<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">unconfi<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">ned\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">aquifer<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">lowers the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">water table<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">. Pumping water from a confined aquifer lowers the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">pressure and\/<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">or<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">potentiometric surface<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">around the well.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">In an unconfined<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">aquifer, the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">water table<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">is lowered as water is removed from the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">near the well producing <strong>drawdown <\/strong>and a <strong>cone of depression<\/strong> (see figure). In a confined<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">aquifer, pumping on an artesian well reduces the pressure or potentiometric surface around the well.<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"EOP SCXW247876017 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_892\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-892\" style=\"width: 3104px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/Cone_of_Depression_WSP2220.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-749 size-full\" title=\"Source: Heath, 1983, USGS\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cone_of_Depression_WSP2220.png\" alt=\"The shape of the potentiometric surface or water table around a pumping well is cone-shaped, where groundwater level has the greatest drawdown near the well.\" width=\"3104\" height=\"1353\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-892\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cones of depression (Heath 1983).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When one cone of depression intersects another cone of depression or a barrier feature like an impermeable mountain block, drawdown is intensified. When a cone of depression intersects a recharge zone, the cone of depression is lessened.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.6.4 Recharge<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The\u00a0<\/span><b>recharge <\/b>area<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is where surface water enters an aquifer through the process of infiltration. Recharge areas are generally topographically high locations of an aquifer. \u00a0They are characterized by losing streams and permeable rock that allows infiltration into the aquifer. Recharge areas mark the beginning of groundwater flow paths.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">In the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">Province<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">, <\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">recharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">areas<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0for\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">unconsolidated<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">aquifers<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">of the valleys <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">are along <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">mountain\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">foothills<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">In\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">the foothills of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">Salt Lake Valley, <\/span><\/span>losing streams contribute water to the gravel-rich deltaic deposits of ancient Lake Bonneville, in some cases feeding artesian wells in the Salt Lake Valley.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW103813114\">An\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">aquifer<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">management practice<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">is to induce <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">r<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">echarge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\"> through storage and recovery<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">Geologists and hydrologists<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">can<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0increase the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">recharge\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">rate<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">into an<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">using<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0i<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">njection wells and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">infiltration<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">galleries<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0or\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">basins<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">35<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">].\u00a0<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">Injection wells pump water into an<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0where it\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">can be<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0stored<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Injection wells are regulated by state and federal governments to ensure that the injected water is not negatively impacting the quality or supply of the existing groundwater in the aquifer. \u00a0Some aquifers can store significant quantities of water, allowing water managers to use the aquifer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> like a surface reservoir. Water is stored in the aquifer during <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">periods<\/a> of low water demand and high water supply and later extracted during times of high water demand and low water supply.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3451\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3451\" style=\"width: 550px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/wcartificialrecharge.gif\"><img class=\"wp-image-750\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/wcartificialrecharge.gif\" alt=\"Different ways an aquifer can be recharged. Rivers, injection wells, and infiltration can all contribute to aquifer recharge.\" width=\"550\" height=\"271\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3451\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Different ways an aquifer can be recharged.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><b>11.6.5 Discharge<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><strong>Discharge<\/strong> areas are where\u00a0the<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">water table or potentiometric surface<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">intersects the land surface.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">Discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">areas mark the end of<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">flow paths<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">.<span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">These areas\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">are characterized by springs,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW87410731\">flowing\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">artesian<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">wells, gaining<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">streams, and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">playas<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">i<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">n the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\"> dry<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">valley<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0basins<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">Province\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">of\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">the western United States<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.6.6 Groundwater mining and subsidence<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Like other <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1738\">natural resources<\/a> on our planet, the quantity of fresh and potable water is finite.\u00a0 The only natural source of water on land is from the sky in the form of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>.\u00a0 <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">I<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">n many places<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">is being extracted faster than it is being replenished<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">When<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">is extracted faster than<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">it is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">recharge<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">d<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">levels\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">and<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">potentiometric surfaces<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">decline<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">areas <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">diminish\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">or dry up completely.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>Regional pumping-induced groundwater decline is known as <\/span><b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1772\">groundwater mining<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> or groundwater overdraft. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1772\">Groundwater mining<\/a> is a serious situation and can lead to dry wells, reduced spring and stream flow, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a>. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW8772542\">G<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">roundwater mining<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">is happening<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\"> is places <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">w<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">here<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0more water is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">extract<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">ed<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0by pumping\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">than\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">is being\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">replenish<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">ed<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0by<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">, and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">water table <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">is continual<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">l<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">y<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0lower<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">ed<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">. In these situations, groundwater must be viewed as a ore body and in its depletion, the possibility of producing ghost towns.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4550\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4550\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Science-Today-Groundwater-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-751\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-Today-Groundwater-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4550\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">In many places, water <\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun AdvancedProofingIssueV2 SCXW193209130 BCX0\">actually helps<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0hold up<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW193209130 BCX0\">an<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u2019s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">skeleton\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">by the water pressure exerted on the grains in an<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">aquifer.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"> This pressure is called <strong>pore <\/strong><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><strong>pressure<\/strong> and comes from the weight of overlying water. If pore pressure decreases because of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1772\">groundwater mining<\/a>, the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">aquifer<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">can compact, causing the surface of the ground to sink.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">Areas especially susceptible to this effect are<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">aquifers<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">made of unconsolidated<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">Unconsolidated<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">with multiple layers of clay and other fine-grained material are at higher risk because\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">when water is<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0drained,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">clay\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">compact<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"> considerably<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">36<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">;<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">37<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">].<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW193209130 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3452\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3452\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/100_4902-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-3452 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/100_4902-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"The author stands in a large ditch-like\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3452\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Example of an earth fissure in Cedar City.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">Subsidence<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1772\">groundwater mining<\/a> has been documented in southwestern Utah, notably Cedar Valley, Iron County, Utah. \u00a0Groundwater levels have declined more than 100 feet in certain parts of Cedar Valley, causing earth fissures and measurable amounts of land <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3453\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3453\" style=\"width: 174px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/land-subsidence-poland-calif.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-753\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/land-subsidence-poland-calif.jpg\" alt=\"Eivdence of land subsidence from pumping of groundwater shown by dates on a pole\" width=\"174\" height=\"435\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3453\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Evidence of land subsidence from pumping of groundwater shown by dates on a pole<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This photo shows documentation of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> from pumping of groundwater for irrigation in the Central Valley in California. The pole shows <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> from groundwater pumping over a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">period<\/a> of time.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-81\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-81\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"81\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.6 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4543\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4543\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.6-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-754\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4543\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.6 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><b>11.7 Water Contamination and Remediation<\/b><\/h2>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">Water can be contaminated by <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW125219294 BCX0\">natural features like<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1765\">mineral<\/a>-rich geologic<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">formations\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">and by <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">human <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">activities <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">such as a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">griculture, industrial <\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">operations, landfills, animal operations, and <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">sewage treatment processes, among many other things<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW125219294 BCX0\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">As water runs over the land or<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">infiltrates<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">into the ground, it dissolves material left behind by these potential contaminant sources. There are three major groups of contamination:\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">organic and <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">inorganic chemicals<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">and biological agents. Small<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">that cloud<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">water<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">causing turbidity<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0is also an issue with some wells, but it is not considered contamination. The risks and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0type of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">remediation<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">for a contaminant depends on the type of chemicals present.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW125219294 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">Contamination occurs as point<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">source and non<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">point<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">source pollution.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><b>Point source<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> pollution can be attributed to a single, definable source, while<\/span><b> nonpoint source <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">pollution is from multiple dispersed sources. Point sources include waste disposal sites, storage tanks, sewage treatment plants, and chemical spills. Nonpoint sources are dispersed and indiscreet, where the whole of the contribution of pollutants is harmful, but the individual components do not have harmful concentrations of pollutants. \u00a0A good example of nonpoint pollution is residential areas, where lawn fertilizer on one person\u2019s yard may not contribute much pollution to the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>, but the combined effect of many residents using fertilizer can lead to significant nonpoint pollution. \u00a0Other nonpoint sources include nutrients (nitrate and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_975\">phosphate<\/a>), herbicides, pesticides contributed by farming, nitrate contributed by animal operations, and nitrate contributed by septic systems. \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Organic chemicals<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0are common pollutants. They consist of strands and rings of carbon atoms, usually connected by covalent <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1781\">bonds<\/a>. Other types of atoms, like chlorine, and molecules, like hydroxide (OH<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">-<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), are attached to the strands and rings. The number and arrangement of atoms will decide how the chemical behaves in the environment, its danger to humans or ecosystems, and where the chemical ends up in the environment. The different arrangements of carbon allow for tens of thousands of organic chemicals, many of which have never been studied for negative effects on human health or the environment. \u00a0Common organic pollutants are herbicides and pesticides, pharmaceuticals, fuel, and industrial solvents and cleansers. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Organic chemicals include surfactants<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW79227683\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\">\u00a0such as<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW79227683\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\">cleaning agents<\/span><\/span>\u00a0and synthetic hormones associated with pharmaceuticals, which can act as endocrine disruptors. Endocrine disruptors mimic hormones, and can cause long-term effects in developing sexual reproduction systems in developing animals. Only very small quantities of endocrine disruptors are needed to cause significant changes in animal populations.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">An example of organic chemical contamination is the Love Canal, Niagara Falls, New York. From 1942 to 1952, the Hooker Chemical Company disposed of over <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW131021485\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\">21,337 mt (<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\">21,000 t<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW131021485\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span> of chemical waste, including chlorinated hydrocarbons, into a canal and covered it with a thin layer of clay. \u00a0Chlorinated hydrocarbons are a large group of organic chemicals that have chlorine functional groups, most of which are toxic and carcinogenic to humans. The company sold the land to the New York School Board, who developed it into a neighborhood. After residents began to suffer from serious health ailments and pools of oily fluid started rising into residents\u2019 basements, the neighborhood had to be evacuated. \u00a0This site became a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency <\/span><b>Superfund site<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, a site with federal funding and oversight to ensure its cleanup. \u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Inorganic chemicals<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0are another set of chemical pollutants. They can contain carbon atoms, but not in long strands or links. Inorganic contaminants include chloride, arsenic, and nitrate (NO<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">3<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). \u00a0Nutrients can be from geologic material, like phosphorous-rich rock, but are most often sourced from fertilizer and animal and human waste. \u00a0Untreated sewage and agricultural runoff contain concentrates of nitrogen and phosphorus which are essential for the growth of microorganisms. Nutrients like nitrate and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_975\">phosphate<\/a> in surface water can promote growth of microbes, like blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), which in turn use oxygen and create toxins (microcystins and anatoxins) in lakes <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW72694573\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW72694573\">38<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW72694573\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. This process is known as eutrophication.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Metals are common inorganic contaminants. Lead, mercury, and arsenic are some of the more problematic inorganic groundwater contaminants. \u00a0Bangladesh has a well documented case of arsenic contamination from natural geologic material dissolving into the groundwater. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">Acid<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">mine drainage<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">can also cause significant inorganic contamination<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">ee <\/span><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/16-energy-and-mineral-resources\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\">Chap<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\">ter\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\">16<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Salt, typically sodium chloride, is a common inorganic contaminant. \u00a0It can be introduced into groundwater from natural sources, such as evaporite deposits like the Arapien Shale of Utah, or from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a> sources like the salts applied to roads in the winter to keep ice from forming. \u00a0Salt contamination can also occur <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW153366638 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">near ocean coasts\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">from saltwater intru<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW153366638 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">ding into the <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">cones of depression around fresh<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">pumping<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW153366638 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">, <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW153366638 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">inducing the encroachment of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">saltwater into the freshwater body.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW14358776\">Biological agents are\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">nother common<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">contaminant<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0which includes harmful bacteria and viruses. A common bacteria contaminant is<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><em>Escherichia coli<\/em> (<em>E. coli<\/em>)<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">. Generally, harmful bacteria are not present in<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">unless the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">source <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">is closely connected with a contaminated surface source, such as a septic<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW14358776\">.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">Karst<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">landforms created from\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">dissolved<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">limestone<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">i<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">s especially susceptible to this form of contamination<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0because water moves relatively quickly through the<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\"> conduits o<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">f dissolved<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">limestone<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">Bacteria can also be used for<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">remediation<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/water.usgs.gov\/edu\/groundwater-contaminants.html\"><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Table. Groundwater contaminants.<\/span><\/i><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Remediation<\/strong> is the act of cleaning contamination. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">Hydrologists use<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">\u00a0three\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">types<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">\u00a0of remediation:\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">b<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">iological, chemical, and physical.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Biological remediation uses specific strains of bacteria to break down a contaminant into safer chemicals. \u00a0This type of remediation is usually used on organic chemicals, but also works on reducing or oxidizing inorganic chemicals like nitrate. Phytoremediation is a type of bioremediation that uses plants to absorb the chemicals over time.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Chemical remediation uses chemicals to remove the contaminant or make it less harmful. \u00a0One example is to use a reactive barrier, a permeable wall in the ground or at a discharge point that chemically reacts with contaminants in the water. Reactive barriers made of limestone can increase the pH of acid mine drainage, making the water less acidic and more basic, which removes dissolved contaminants by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> into solid form.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Physical remediation consists of removing the contaminated water and either treating it with filtration<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">, called<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">\u00a0pump<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">treat,<\/span><\/span><\/span> or disposing of it. \u00a0All of these options are technically complex, expensive, and difficult, with physical remediation typically being the most costly.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-82\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-82\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"82\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.7 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4544\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4544\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.7-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Youtube.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-755\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.7-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Youtube-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4544\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.7 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><b>11.8 Karst<\/b><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3454\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3454\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Karst-Towers-in-China.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-756 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Karst-Towers-in-China-300x205.jpg\" alt=\"Steep rock towers left as remnants of limestone layers dissolved away by acidic rainwater.\" width=\"300\" height=\"205\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3454\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Steep karst towers in China left as remnants as limestone is dissolved away by acidic rain and groundwater.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><strong>Karst<\/strong> refers to landscapes and hydrologic features created\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW177943039 BCX0\">by\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">dissolving<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">limestone. Karst can be<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0found anywhere<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">there is<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">limestone<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">and other soluble subterranean substances like salt deposits.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">Dissol<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">ving<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">limestone<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">creates features like sinkholes, caverns, disappearing<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">streams, and\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">towers.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW177943039 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3455\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3455\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Sinkholes-in-Kaibab-Ls-from-solution-of-salt.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-757 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sinkholes-in-Kaibab-Ls-from-solution-of-salt-300x204.jpg\" alt=\"Sinkholes of the McCauley Sink in Northern Arizona, produced by collapse of Kaibab Limestone into caverns caused by solution of underlying salt deposits\" width=\"300\" height=\"204\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3455\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sinkholes of the McCauley Sink in Northern Arizona, produced by collapse of Kaibab Limestone into caverns caused by solution of underlying salt deposits .<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Dissolving of underlying salt deposits has caused sinkholes to form in the Kaibab Limestone on the Colorado Plateau in Arizona.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3456\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3456\" style=\"width: 439px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Sinkhole.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-758\" style=\"font-weight: bold; background-color: transparent; text-align: inherit;\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sinkhole-300x196.jpg\" alt=\"Sinkhole that appeared in Florida in the front yard of a home.\" width=\"439\" height=\"288\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3456\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This sinkhole from collapse of surface into a underground cavern appeared in the front yard of this home in Florida.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW56751174 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\">Collapse of the surface into an underground cavern caused this s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\">inkhole <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\">in the front yard of a home in Florida.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW56751174 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">CO<sub><span class=\"NormalTextRun Superscript SCXW178914480 BCX0\" data-fontsize=\"11\">2<\/span><\/sub>\u00a0in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0dissolves readily in the water droplets that form clouds\u00a0from which\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>\u00a0comes in the form of rain and snow. This\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>\u00a0is slightly acidic with\u00a0carbonic acid.<span class=\"EOP SCXW178914480 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span>Karst<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">forms when<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">carbonic acid <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">dissolves<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">calcite<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">(calcium<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a>) in<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">limestone.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>H<sub>2<\/sub>O + CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0= H<sub>2<\/sub>CO<sub>3<\/sub><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Water + Carbon Dioxide Gas equals Carbonic Acid in Water<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>CaCO<sub>3<\/sub> + H<sub>2<\/sub>CO<sub>3<\/sub>\u00a0= Ca<sup>2+<\/sup>+ 2HCO<sub>3<\/sub> <sup>-1<\/sup><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Solid <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">Calcite<\/a> + Carbonic Acid in Water Dissolved equals Calcium Ion + Dissolved Bicarbonate Ion<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3457\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3457\" style=\"width: 385px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1024px-Dead_trees_at_Mammoth_Hot_Springs.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-759\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1024px-Dead_trees_at_Mammoth_Hot_Springs-300x198.jpg\" alt=\"Calcium carbonate deposited at Mammoth hot springs encapsulates trees.\" width=\"385\" height=\"255\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3457\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mammoth hot springs, Yellowstone National Park.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">After the slightly acidic water dissolves the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">calcite<\/a>, changes in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> or gas content in the water can cause the water to redeposit the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">calcite<\/a> in a different place as tufa (travertine), often deposited by a spring<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> or in a cave. \u00a0Speleothems are secondary deposits, typically made of travertine, deposited in a cave<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0Travertine speleothems form by water dripping through cracks and dissolved openings in caves and evaporating, leaving behind the travertine deposits. \u00a0Speleothems commonly occur in the form of stalactites, when extending from the ceiling, and stalagmites, when standing up from the floor.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3458\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3458\" style=\"width: 490px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/640px-Labeled_speleothems.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-760\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/640px-Labeled_speleothems-300x214.jpg\" alt=\"Cave deposits hanging and protruding from the base of a cave.\" width=\"490\" height=\"350\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3458\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Varieties of speleotherms.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3459\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3459\" style=\"width: 472px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Disappearing-stream.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-761\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Disappearing-stream-300x224.jpg\" alt=\"Stream disappears into subterranean cavern system.\" width=\"472\" height=\"352\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3459\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This stream disappears into a subterranean cavern system to re-emerge a few hundred yards downstream.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Surface water enters the karst <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> through sinkholes, losing streams, and disappearing streams. \u00a0Changes in base level can cause rivers running over limestone to dissolve the limestone and sink into the ground. \u00a0As the water continues to dissolve its way through the limestone, it can leave behind intricate networks of caves and narrow passages. \u00a0Often dissolution will follow and expand <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_986\">fractures<\/a> in the limestone. \u00a0Water exits the karst <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> as springs and rises. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In mountainous <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1764\">terrane<\/a>, dissolution can extend all the way through the vertical profile of the mountain, with caverns dropping thousands of feet.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-83\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-83\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"83\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.8 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4545\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4545\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.8-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-762\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.8-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4545\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.8 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Water is essential for all living things. It continuously cycles through the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, over land, and through the ground. In much of the United States and other countries, water is managed through a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> of regional laws and regulations and distributed on paper in a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> collectively known as \u201cwater rights\u201d. Surface water follows a watershed, which is separate from other areas by its divides (highest ridges). Groundwater exists in the pores within rocks and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>.\u00a0 It moves predominantly due to pressure and gravitational gradients through the rock. Human and natural causes can make water unsuitable for consumption.\u00a0 There are different ways to deal with this contamination. Karst is when limestone is dissolved by water, forming caves and sinkholes.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this Chapter.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-84\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-84\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"84\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Chapter 11 Review\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4547\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4547\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Ch.11-Review-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-763\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.11-Review-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4547\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the review quiz for Chapter 11 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><b>References<\/b><\/h2>\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\">\n<ol>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Brush, L.M., Jr, 1961, Drainage basins, channels, and flow characteristics of selected streams in central Pennsylvania: pubs.er.usgs.gov.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Charlton, R., 2007, Fundamentals of fluvial geomorphology: Taylor &amp; Francis.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Cirrus Ecological <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1783\">Solutions<\/a>, 2009, Jordan River TMDL: Utah State Division of Water Quality.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Earle, S., 2015, Physical geology OER textbook: BC Campus OpenEd.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">EPA, 2009, Water on Tap-What You Need to Know: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Fagan, B., 2012, Elixir: A history of water and humankind: Bloomsbury Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Fairbridge, R.W., 1968, Yazoo rivers or streams, <i>in<\/i> Geomorphology: Springer Berlin Heidelberg Encyclopedia of Earth Science, p. 1238\u20131239.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Freeze, A.R., and Cherry, J.A., 1979, Groundwater: Prentice Hall.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Galloway, D., Jones, D.R., and Ingebritsen, S.E., 1999, Land <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1182.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Galloway, W.E., Whiteaker, T.L., and Ganey-Curry, P., 2011, History of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_488\">Cenozoic<\/a> North American drainage basin evolution, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> yield, and accumulation in the Gulf of Mexico <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a>: <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1743\">Geosphere<\/a>, v. 7, no. 4, p. 938\u2013973.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Gilbert, G.K., 1890, Lake Bonneville: United States Geological Survey, 438 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Gleick, P.H., 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World\u2019s Fresh Water Resources: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hadley, G., 1735, Concerning the cause of the general trade-winds: By Geo. Hadley, Esq; FRS: Philosophical Transactions, v. 39, no. 436\u2013444, p. 58\u201362.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Halvorson, S.F., and James Steenburgh, W., 1999, Climatology of lake-effect snowstorms of the Great Salt Lake: University of Utah.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Heath, R.C., 1983, Basic ground-water hydrology: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2220, 91 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hobbs, W.H., and Fisk, H.N., 1947, Geological Investigation of the Alluvial Valley of the Lower Mississippi River: JSTOR.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Knudsen, T., Inkenbrandt, P., Lund, W., Lowe, M., and Bowman, S., 2014, Investigation of land <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> and earth fissures in Cedar Valley, Iron County, Utah: Utah Geological Survey Special Study 150.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Lorenz, E.N., 1955, Available potential energy and the maintenance of the general circulation: Tell\u2019Us, v. 7, no. 2, p. 157\u2013167.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Marston, R.A., Mills, J.D., Wrazien, D.R., Bassett, B., and Splinter, D.K., 2005, Effects of Jackson lake dam on the Snake River and its floodplain, Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming, USA: Geomorphology, v. 71, no. 1\u20132, p. 79\u201398.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Maupin, M.A., Kenny, J.F., Hutson, S.S., Lovelace, J.K., Barber, N.L., and Linsey, K.S., 2014, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2010: US Geological Survey.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Myers, W.B., and Hamilton, W., 1964, The Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake of August 17, 1959: U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., v. 435, p. 51.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Oviatt, C.G., 2015, Chronology of Lake Bonneville, 30,000 to 10,000 yr B.P: Quat. Sci. Rev., v. 110, p. 166\u2013171.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Powell, J.W., 1879, Report on the lands of the arid region of the United States with a more detailed account of the land of Utah with maps: Monograph.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Reed, J.C., Love, D., and Pierce, K., 2003, Creation of the Teton landscape: a geologic chronicle of Jackson Hole and the Teton Range: pubs.er.usgs.gov.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Reese, R.S., 2014, Review of Aquifer Storage and Recovery in the Floridan Aquifer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">System<\/a> of Southern Florida:<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Schele, L., Miller, M.E., Kerr, J., Coe, M.D., and Sano, E.J., 1992, The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art: George Braziller Inc.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Seaber, P.R., Kapinos, F.P., and Knapp, G.L., 1987, Hydrologic unit maps:<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Solomon, S., 2011, Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization: Harper Perennial.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">T\u00f6rnqvist, T.E., Wallace, D.J., Storms, J.E.A., Wallinga, J., Van Dam, R.L., Blaauw, M., Derksen, M.S., Klerks, C.J.W., Meijneken, C., and Snijders, E.M.A., 2008, Mississippi Delta <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> primarily caused by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1758\">compaction<\/a> of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_490\">Holocene<\/a> strata: Nat. Geosci., v. 1, no. 3, p. 173\u2013176.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Turner, R.E., and Rabalais, N.N., 1991, Changes in Mississippi River water quality this century: Bioscience, v. 41, no. 3, p. 140\u2013147.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">United States Geological Survey, 1967, The Amazon: Measuring a Mighty River: United States Geological Survey O-245-247.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2014, Cyanobacteria\/Cyanotoxins<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">U.S. Geological Survey, 2012, Snowmelt - The Water Cycle, from USGS Water-Science School<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Utah\/Nevada Draft Snake Valley Agreement, 2013<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: 'courier new', courier, monospace;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1742\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1742\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A dark liquid fossil fuel derived from petroleum.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1748\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1748\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Oil which is found in low-permeability, high-porosity rocks such as shale.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1743\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1743\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Gaseous fossil fuel derived from petroleum, mostly made of methane.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1745\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1745\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rocks which allow petroleum resources to collect or move.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1744\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1744\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock that contains material which can be turned into petroleum resources. Organic-rich muds form good source rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1746\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1746\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A geologic circumstance (such as a fold, fault, change in lithology, etc.) which allows petroleum resources to collect.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1747\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1747\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Sands or sandstones that contain high-viscosity petroleum.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1909\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1909\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1516\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1516\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Component of the gravitational force which pushes material downslope.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_756\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_756\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By McKay Savage from London, UK [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AChina_-_Yangshuo_14_-_karst_peaks_tower_over_the_paddy_fields_(140904310).jpg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1785\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1785\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_228\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_228\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. All generated QR Codes are 100% free and can be used for whatever you want. This includes all commercial purposes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1754\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1754\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Large metallic mineral deposit that forms near magma bodies like plutons. Commonly contains copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, and gold.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1756\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1756\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Carbonate rock that reacts with hot magmatic fluids, creating concentrated ore deposits, which include copper, iron, zinc, and gold.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2420\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2420\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_971\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_971\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. All generated QR Codes are 100% free and can be used for whatever you want. This includes all commercial purposes. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2414\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2414\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1228\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1228\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Lowest layer of the soil (C), which is mechanically weathered (not chemically weathered) bedrock.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1934\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1934\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2415\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2415\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2416\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2416\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1917\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1917\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_969\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_969\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rob Lavinsky, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.irocks.com\/\">iRocks.com<\/a> \u2013 CC-BY-SA-3.0 [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AApatite-(CaF)-280343.jpg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1961\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1961\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1929\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1929\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2038\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2038\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2419\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2419\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_760\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_760\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Dave Bunnell \/ Under Earth Images (Own work) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5\">CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3ALabeled_speleothems.jpg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1787\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1787\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1765\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1765\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rule that says the outer valence shell of electrons is complete when it contains 8 electrons.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1893\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1893\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_970\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_970\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. All generated QR Codes are 100% free and can be used for whatever you want. This includes all commercial purposes. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1680\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1680\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Smooth surface carved in harder rocks by glacial action.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1664\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1664\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Dunes that form semicircular shapes due to anchoring vegetation.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1892\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1892\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_968\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_968\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Matt Affolter(QFL247) (talk) (Transferred by Citypeek\/Original uploaded by Matt Affolter(QFL247)) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> or <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gnu.org\/copyleft\/fdl.html\">GFDL<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AHanksite.JPG\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_747\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_747\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>https:\/\/waterdata.usgs.gov\/nwis\/dv\/?ts_id=143976&amp;format=img_default&amp;site_no=404356111503901&amp;set_arithscale_y=on&amp;begin_date=19750718&amp;end_date=19890930<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_762\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_762\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. 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This includes all commercial purposes. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2264\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2264\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_758\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_758\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By U.S. Geological Survey from Reston, VA, USA (Sinkholes) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/deed.en\">CC0<\/a> or Public domain], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3ASinkholes_(18050124324).jpg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2195\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2195\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_250\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_250\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Amcyrus2012 (Own work) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\">CC BY 4.0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3ADiorite_MA.JPG\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1896\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1896\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1891\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1891\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1890\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1890\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_763\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_763\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. 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This includes all commercial purposes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1244\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1244\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock made of primarily silt.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_765\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_765\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><figure id=\"attachment_3413\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3413\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/bend2.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-699 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/bend2-1024x436.jpg\" alt=\"Entrenched meander of the Colorado River, downstream of Page, Arizona. High cliffs, that lead down to a river with narrow shores.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"436\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3413\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Entrenched meander of the Colorado River, downstream of Page, Arizona.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h1>11 Water<\/h1>\n<h4><b>KEY CONCEPTS<\/b><\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_3414\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3414\" style=\"width: 364px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/640px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-700\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/640px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"364\" height=\"273\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3414\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Example of a Roman aqueduct in Segovia, Spain.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38754758\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\">Describe the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38754758\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\">processes<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38754758\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38754758\">\u00a0of the water cycle<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW197926192\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW197926192\">Describe drainage basins, watershed protection, and water budget<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW76897045 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW76897045 BCX0\">Describe reasons for water laws, who controls them, and how water is shared in the western U.S.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW36017110\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW36017110\">Describe zone of transport, zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production, zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a>, and equilibrium<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW97979262\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW97979262\">Describe stream landforms: channel types, alluvial fans, floodplains, natural levees, deltas, entrenched meanders, and terraces<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW13072825 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW13072825 BCX0\">Describe the properties required for a good aquifer; define confining layer water table<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"TextRun SCXW108299043 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW108299043 BCX0\">Describe three major groups of water contamination and three types of remediation<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">Describ<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\"> karst topography<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">, how\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">it is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">created,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW51411932 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW51411932 BCX0\">the landforms that characterize it<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">All life on Earth requires water. \u00a0The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1744\">hydrosphere<\/a> (Earth\u2019s water) is an important agent of geologic change. Water shapes our planet by depositing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1765\">minerals<\/a>, aiding <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1760\">lithification<\/a>, and altering rocks after they are lithified. Water carried by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1680\">subducted<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1659\">oceanic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1669\">plates<\/a> causes <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1686\">flux\u00a0melting<\/a> of upper <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1664\">mantle<\/a> material. Water is among the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1684\">volatiles<\/a> in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1750\">magma<\/a> and emerges at the surface as steam in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanoes<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3415\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3415\" style=\"width: 199px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/4650720277_e5ff788fc0_z.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-701\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/4650720277_e5ff788fc0_z-199x300.jpg\" alt=\"Mayan stone figure with a long elephant-like nose representing a water deity.\" width=\"199\" height=\"300\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3415\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Chac mask in Mexico.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Humans rely on suitable water sources for consumption, agriculture, power generation, and many other purposes. In pre-industrial civilizations, the powerful controlled water resources <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">1<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">2<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0 As shown in the figures, two thousand year old Roman aqueducts still grace European, Middle Eastern, and North African skylines<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0Ancient Mayan architecture depicts water imagery such as frogs, water-lilies, water fowl to illustrate the importance of water in their societies <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">3<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10523279\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0 In the drier lowlands of the Yucatan Peninsula, mask facades of the hooked-nosed rain god, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Chac <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(or <em>Chaac)<\/em><\/span>\u00a0<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">are prominent on Mayan buildings such as the Kodz Poop (Temple of the Masks, sometimes spelled <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW77517608\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW77517608\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW77517608\">Coodz<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW77517608\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW77517608\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW77517608\">\u00a0Poop<\/span><\/span><\/span>) at the ceremonial site of Kabah. To this day government c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ontrolled water continues to be an integral part of most modern societies.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.1 Water Cycle<\/span><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3416\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3416\" style=\"width: 385px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.2watercycle-page.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-702\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.2watercycle-page-300x209.jpg\" alt=\"The water cycle.\" width=\"385\" height=\"268\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3416\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The water cycle.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The water cycle is the continuous circulation of water in the Earth's <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>. During circulation, water\u00a0 changes between solid, liquid, and gas (water vapor) and changes location. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW39602649 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\">The processes involved\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW39602649 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\">in the water cycle\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW39602649 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW39602649 BCX0\">are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>, and runoff.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP TrackedChange SCXW39602649 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Evaporation is the process by which a liquid is converted to a gas. Water evaporates when solar energy warms the water sufficiently to excite the water molecules to the point of vaporization. Evaporation occurs from oceans, lakes, and streams\u00a0and the land surface. Plants <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">contribute significant amounts of water vapor as a byproduct of photosynthesis called transpiration <\/span><\/span>that occurs through the minute pores of plant leaves<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">The term\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><strong><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">evapotranspiration<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/strong><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">refers to<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">these two sources of water entering the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">\u00a0and is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW207464996\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW207464996\">commonly used by g<\/span><\/span><\/span>eologists.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW11741361 BCX0\">Water vapor is invisible. Condensation is the process of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">w<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">ater vapor\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">transitioning to a liq<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">uid<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\">Winds carry<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW11741361 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW11741361 BCX0\"> water vapor <\/span><\/span><\/span>in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> long distances. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">When\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">vapor<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">cools or\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">when air masses of different temperatures mix<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW11741361\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11741361\"> water vapor may condense back into droplets of liquid water. <\/span><\/span><\/span>These water droplets usually form around a microscopic piece of dust or salt called condensation nuclei.<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW215532585\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">T<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">he<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">se<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\"> small d<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">roplets of liquid\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">suspended in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a> become<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\"> visible <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">as<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW215532585\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">\u00a0in\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW215532585\">a cloud.<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW82462577 BCX0\">Water droplets inside c<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">louds\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">collide and stick<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">\u00a0together<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">, growing into larger<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\"> droplets. O<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">nce<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW82462577 BCX0\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">droplets\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">become <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">big enough, they fall to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">E<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">arth as<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW82462577 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW82462577 BCX0\">rain, snow, hail, or sleet.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW82462577 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Once <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> has reached the Earth's surface, it can evaporate or flow as <strong>runoff<\/strong> into streams, lakes, and eventually back to the oceans. \u00a0Water in streams and lakes is called surface water.\u00a0 Or water can also <strong>infiltrate<\/strong> into the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a> and fill the pore spaces in the rock or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> underground to become <strong>groundwater<\/strong>. Groundwater slowly moves through rock and unconsolidated materials. Some groundwater may reach the surface again, where it discharges as springs, streams, lakes, and\u00a0 the ocean. Also, surface water in streams and lakes can infiltrate again to recharge groundwater. \u00a0Therefore, the surface water and groundwater systems are connected.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4554\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4554\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/The-Water-Cycle-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-703\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/The-Water-Cycle-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4554\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<p><i><\/i><\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-75\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-75\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"75\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.2 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4536\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4536\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-704\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.1-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4536\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.1 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.2 Water Basins and Budgets<\/span><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3417\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3417\" style=\"width: 226px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6-Hydrographic_basin.svg_.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-705\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6-Hydrographic_basin.svg_-300x296.png\" alt=\"Map view of a drainage basin with main trunk streams and many tributaries with drainage divide in dashed red line.\" width=\"226\" height=\"223\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3417\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map view of a drainage basin with main trunk streams and many tributaries with drainage divide in dashed red line.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The basic unit of division of the landscape is the <b>drainage basin<\/b>, also known as a\u00a0<b>catchment<\/b>\u00a0or <b>watershed. It<\/b> is the area of land that captures <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> and contributes runoff to a stream or stream segment <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW83290690\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW83290690\">4]<\/span>. <strong>Drainage divides<\/strong> are local topographic high points that separate one drainage basin from another <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW190510073\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW190510073\">5<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW190510073\">]<\/span>. Water that falls on one side of the divide goes to one stream, and water that falls on the other side of the divide goes to a different stream. Each stream, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> and streamlet has its own drainage basin. In areas with flatter topography, drainage divides are not as easily identified but they still exist<span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26145523\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW26145523\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26145523\">6<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26145523\">]<\/span>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3418\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3418\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1024px-EN_Bazinul_hidrografic_al_Raului_Latorita_Romania.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-706 size-medium\" title=\"By Asybaris01\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1024px-EN_Bazinul_hidrografic_al_Raului_Latorita_Romania-300x214.jpg\" alt=\"Oblique view of the drainage basin and divide of the Latorita River, Romania.\" width=\"300\" height=\"214\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3418\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Oblique view of the drainage basin and divide of the Latorita River, Romania.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The headwater is where the stream begins. Smaller <b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> <\/b>streams combine downhill to make the larger trunk of the stream. The <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a><\/strong> is where the stream finally reaches its end. The mouth of most streams is at the ocean. However, a rare number of streams do not flow to the ocean, but rather end in a <b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1777\">closed basin<\/a><\/b> (or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1777\">endorheic basin<\/a>) where the only outlet is evaporation. Most streams in the Great <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">Basin<\/a> of Western North America end in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1777\">endorheic basins<\/a>. For example, in Salt Lake County, Utah, Little Cottonwood Creek and the Jordan River flow into the endorheic Great Salt Lake where the water evaporates.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3419\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3419\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Ocean_drainage.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-707 size-full\" title=\"By Citynoise at English Wikipedia \" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ocean_drainage.png\" alt=\"Major drainage basins color coded to match the related ocean. Closed basins (or endorheic basins) are shown in gray.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"535\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3419\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Major drainage basins color coded to match the related ocean. Closed basins (or endorheic basins) are shown in gray.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW135665434 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW135665434 BCX0\">Perennial streams flow all year round. <\/span><\/span><b>Perennial streams<\/b> occur in humid or temperate climates where there is sufficient rainfall and low evaporation rates. \u00a0Water levels rise and fall with the seasons, depending on the discharge. <b>Ephemeral streams<\/b> flow only during rain events or the wet season. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">I<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">n arid climates<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0like Utah, many<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">streams<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">are<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">ephemeral.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">These\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">streams\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">occur in dry climates with low amounts of rainfall and high evaporation rates. Their channels are <span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\">often<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span>dry washes\u00a0or\u00a0arroyos\u00a0for much of the year and t<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">heir sudden flow causes <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1506\">flash floods<\/a> <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW92545693\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW92545693\">7<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW92545693\">]<\/span>.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW135665434\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW135665434\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Along Utah\u2019s Wasatch Front,\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW73071915\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\">the urban area extending north<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW73071915\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\">\u00a0to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW73071915\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW73071915\">south from Brigham City to Provo,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span>there are several watersheds that are designated as \u201cwatershed protection areas\u201d that limit the type of use allowed in those drainages in order to protect culinary water. \u00a0Dogs and swimming are limited in those watersheds because of the possibility of contamination by harmful bacteria and substances to the drinking supply of Salt Lake City and surrounding municipalities.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW230395698 BCX0\">Water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">in the water cycle\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">is very much like money in a personal budget. I<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">ncome\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">includes<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">inflow<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">E<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">xpenses\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">include<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">withdrawal, evaporation, and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">outflow. If the expenses outweigh the income, the water budget is not balanced<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">. In this case, <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">removed from\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">savings<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">, i.e. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">storage<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">if available.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">Reservoirs, snow<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">ice,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">moisture, and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">aquifers<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">all\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">serve<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">s\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">storage in a water budget.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">\u00a0In\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">dry regions, the water is critical for sustaining human activities<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">. U<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">nderstanding and managing\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\">the water budget<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW230395698 BCX0\"> is an ongoing political and social challenge.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP TrackedChange SCXW230395698 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hydrologists create groundwater budgets within any designated area, but they are generally made for watershed (<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a>) boundaries, because groundwater and surface water are easier to account for within these boundaries. Water budgets can be created for state, county, or aquifer extent boundaries as well. \u00a0The groundwater budget is an essential component of the hydrologic model; hydrologists use measured data with a conceptual workflow of the model to better understand the water <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-78\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-78\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"78\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.6 Map of Mississippi River meander channels\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4537\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4537\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-708\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.2-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4537\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.2 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.3 Water Use and Distribution<\/span><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3420\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3420\" style=\"width: 431px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.4_Earth111Mod1Fig11.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-709\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.4_Earth111Mod1Fig11-300x274.png\" alt=\"Agricultural water use in the United States by state.\" width=\"431\" height=\"393\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3420\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Agricultural water use in the United States by state.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the United States, <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">1,<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">34<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">4 billion<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">L<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">\u00a0(<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>355 billion gallons) of ground and surface water are used each day, of which <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">2<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">8<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">8 billion<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">L<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW140405130\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW140405130\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW140405130\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>76 billion gallons) are fresh groundwater. \u00a0The state of California uses 16% of national groundwater <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW70803371\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW70803371\">8<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW70803371\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Utah is the second driest state in the United States. Nevada, having a mean statewide <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> of\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">31\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">c<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">m<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">\u00a0(<\/span><\/span><\/span>12.2 inches) per year, is the driest. \u00a0Utah also has the second highest per capita rate of total domestic water use <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">of <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">632.16\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">L<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW225581329\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW225581329\">\u00a0(<\/span><\/span><\/span>167 gallonsL per <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">day per person <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW70803371\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW70803371\">8<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW70803371\">]<\/span>. \u00a0With the combination of relatively high demand and limited quantity, Utah is at risk for water budget deficits.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3421\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3421\" style=\"width: 610px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.4_trends-bar-2010.png\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-710\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.4_trends-bar-2010.png\" alt=\"Trends in water use by source\" width=\"610\" height=\"357\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3421\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Trends in water use by source<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><b>11.3.1 Surface Water Distribution<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\">Fresh water is a precious resource and should not be taken for granted, especially in dry<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW10965646\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10965646\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span>Surface water makes up only 1.2% of the fresh water available on the planet, and 69% of that surface water is trapped in ground ice and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">permafrost<\/a>. \u00a0Stream water accounts for only 0.006% of all freshwater and lakes contain only 0.26% of the world\u2019s fresh water <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW253398420\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW253398420\">9<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW253398420\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Global circulation patterns are the most important factor in <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW37402210\">distributi<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\">ng<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\">\u00a0surface water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\">through\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW37402210\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span>. D<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ue to the Coriolis effect and the uneven heating of the Earth, air rises near the equator and near latitudes 60\u00b0 north and south. A<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ir sinks at the poles and latitudes 30\u00b0 north and south\u00a0 (see <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/13-deserts\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"FieldRange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun Underlined BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"none\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" data-ccp-charstyle=\"Hyperlink\">Chapter 13<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a>). <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0Land masses near rising air are\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">more\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">prone to humid and wet climates<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">. Land masses near<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">sinking air<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">, which<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0inhibits<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">a<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234167386\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">re prone to <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234167386\">dry conditions <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW166247515\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">10<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">11<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW166247515\">]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Prevailing winds, ocean circulation patterns such as the Gulf Stream\u2019s effects on eastern North America, rain shadows (the dry leeward sides of mountains), and even the proximity of bodies of water can affect local <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> patterns. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW133046679 BCX0\">When\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">this moist\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">air <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">collides with the nearby moun<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">tains causing it to rise and cool, the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">moisture\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">may <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">fall<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">out\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">as snow or rain on nearby areas<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">in\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">a phenomenon known as\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u201c<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">lake-effect<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133046679 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133046679 BCX0\">\u201d <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW2109339\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW2109339\">12<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW2109339\">]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3422\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3422\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/pageprecip_us3.png\"><img class=\"size-large wp-image-711\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/pageprecip_us3-1024x789.png\" alt=\"Distribution of precipitation in the United States.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"789\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3422\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Distribution of precipitation in the United States. The 100th Meridian is approximately where the average precipitation transitions from relatively wet to dry. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the United States, the 100th meridian <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">roughly marks the boundary between the humid and arid parts of the country. Growing crops west of the 100th meridian requires irrigation <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW93504855\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW93504855\">13<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW93504855\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. In the west, surface water is stored in reservoirs and mountain snowpacks <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW59410485\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW59410485\">14<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW59410485\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, then strategically released through a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> of canals during times of high water use.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some of the driest parts of the western United States are in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a> Province. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a> has multiple mountain ranges that are oriented north to south. \u00a0Most of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a> valleys in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a> are dry, receiving less than <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">30\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">c<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">m\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>12 inches) of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> per year. However, some of the mountain ranges can receive more than 1<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW239353099\">.52 m\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW239353099\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW239353099\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW239353099\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>60 inches) of water as snow or snow-water-equivalent. The snow-water equivalent is the amount of water that would result if the snow were melted, as the snowpack is generally much thicker than the equivalent amount of water that it would produce <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW74073591\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74073591\">12<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74073591\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.3.2 Groundwater Distribution<\/b><\/h3>\n<table class=\"center\" style=\"width: 723px;\" summary=\"Data table showing one estimate of global water distribution. Where and how much water is located in, on, and above the earth.\">\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"height: 86.7969px; background-color: #b8f2e8; border-color: #030303;\">\n<th style=\"height: 86.7969px; width: 253px; text-align: center;\">Water source<\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 86.7969px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">Water volume<\/p>\n<p>(cubic miles)<\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 86.7969px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">Fresh water (%)<\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 86.7969px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">Total water (%)<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Oceans, Seas, &amp; Bays<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">321,000,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">96.5<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 56px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Ice caps, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">Glaciers<\/a>, &amp; Permanent Snow<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">5,773,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">68.7<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">1.74<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Groundwater<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">5,614,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">1.69<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 -- Fresh<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">2,526,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">30.1<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">\u00a0\u00a00.76<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 -- Saline<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">3,088,000<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">\u00a0\u00a00.93<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">Soil<\/a> Moisture<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">3,959<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.05<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.001<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Ground Ice &amp; <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_760\">Permafrost<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">71,970<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.86<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.022<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Lakes<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">42,320<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.013<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 -- Fresh<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">21,830<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.26<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.007<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 -- Saline<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">20,490<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">--<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.006<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">Atmosphere<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">3,095<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.04<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.001<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Swamp Water<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">2,752<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.03<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.0008<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Rivers<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">509<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.006<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.0002<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"even\" style=\"height: 28px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 253px; text-align: left;\">Biological Water<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 179px; text-align: center;\">269<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 123px; text-align: center;\">0.003<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 28px; width: 113px; text-align: center;\">0.0001<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 56px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 56px; width: 668px;\" colspan=\"4\"><span class=\"smaller\" style=\"font-size: 8pt;\">Source: Igor Shiklomanov's chapter \"World fresh water resources\" in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources (Oxford University Press, New York)[zotpressInText item=\"{P7VGIQT4}\" format=\"%num%\" brackets=\"yes\" separator=\"comma\"]<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Groundwater makes up 30.1% of the fresh water on the planet, making it the most abundant reservoir of fresh water accessible to most humans. \u00a0The majority of freshwater, 68.7%, is stored in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> and ice caps as ice<span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74300989\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW74300989\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74300989\">9<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW74300989\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0 As the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a> and ice caps melt due to global warming, this fresh water is lost as it flows into the oceans.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-79\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-79\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"79\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.6_MissDelt.jpg\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4538\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4538\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-712\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.3-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4538\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.3 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.4 Water Law<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Federal and state governments have put laws in place to ensure the fair and equitable use of water. In the United States, the states are tasked with creating a fair and legal <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> for sharing water. <\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.4.1 Water Rights<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Because of the limited supply of water, especially in the western United States, states disperse a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> of legal <strong>water rights<\/strong> defined as a claim to a portion or all of a water source, such as a spring, stream, well, or lake<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0Federal law mandates that states control water rights, with the special exception of federally reserved water rights, such as those associated with national parks and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_976\">Native<\/a> American tribes, and navigation servitude that maintains navigable water bodies. Each state in the United States has a different way to disperse and manage water rights. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A person, entity, company, or organization, must have a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1773\">water right<\/a> to legally extract or use surface or groundwater in their state. \u00a0Water rights in some western states are dictated by the concept of prior appropriation, or \u201cfirst in time, first in right,\u201d where the person with the oldest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1773\">water right<\/a> gets priority water use during times when there is not enough water to fulfill every <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1773\">water right<\/a>. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Colorado River and its tributaries pass through a desert region, including seven states (Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, California), <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_976\">Native<\/a> American reservations, and Mexico. As the western United States became more populated and while California was becoming a key agricultural producer, the states along the Colorado River realized that the river was important to sustaining life in the West. \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">T<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">o guarantee\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">certain\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><em>perceived<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">water rights<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">, the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">se western states<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">recognized\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW184366708\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW184366708\">that<\/span><\/span><\/span> a water budget was necesary for the Colorado River <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">Basin<\/a>. Thus was enacted the Colorado River Compact in 1922 to ensure that each state got a fair share of the river water. The Compact granted each state a specific volume of water based on the total measured flow at the time. \u00a0However, in 1922, the flow of the river was higher than its long-term average flow, consequently, more water was allocated to each state than is typically available in the river <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW136464619\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW136464619\">16<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW136464619\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Over the next several decades<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">lawmakers\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">have\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">made\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">many other agreements and modifications\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">regarding <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">the Colorado<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">River<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Compact,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">including\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">those\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">agreements\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">that brought about the Hoover\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Dam\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">(formerly Boulder Dam)<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Glen Canyon Dam<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW112536447\"> and a treaty between the American and Mexican governments. <span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Co<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">llectively<\/span>, the agreements\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">are referred to <\/span>as\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u201c<\/span>The Law of the\u00a0River\"<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">by the United States Bureau of\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW112536447\">Reclamation<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW112536447\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span>\u00a0 <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">Despite adjustments to the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">Colorado River Compact<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0many believe that\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">Colorado<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">River<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">is still <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">over-allocat<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">ed<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">as the <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">Colorado<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">River <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\">flow<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8127879\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">no longer reaches the Pacific Ocean, its original terminus (base level).<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8127879\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">Dams along<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">Colorado<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">River<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">have <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">caus<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">ed water to<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0diver<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">t<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0and evaporat<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">, creating<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">serious water budget concerns in the Colorado<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">River<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">B<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW247511937\">asin. Predicted drought associated with global warming\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">is\u00a0<\/span>caus<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">ing<\/span>\u00a0additional concerns about\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">over-allocati<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">ng<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">the\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">Colorado<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">River<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">flow<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">in the future<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">.<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW247511937\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Law of the River highlights the complex and prolonged nature of interstate water rights agreements, as well as the importance of water.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4552\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4552\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/The-Colorado-River-Compact-of-1922-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-713\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/The-Colorado-River-Compact-of-1922-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4552\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW156675929\">The\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\">Snake Valley straddles the border of Utah and Nevada with<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\"> m<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\">ore of the irrigable land area lying on the Utah side of the border.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW156675929\"> <span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW156675929\">In 1989, the Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) submitted applications for water rights to pipe<\/span>\u00a0up to\u00a0<span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">191<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">,<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">189<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">,<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">70<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">7<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">cu m<\/span><\/span>\u00a0(<span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">155,000 ac<span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\">-ft<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW156675929\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\">)<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\">\u00a0<\/span>of water per year\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\">(an acre-foot of water is one acre covered with water one foot deep)\u00a0<\/span>from\u00a0Spring, Snake,\u00a0Delamar, Dry Lake, and Cave <span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW156675929\">v<\/span>alleys to southern Nevada,\u00a0 mostly for Las Vegas<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW15730741\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW15730741\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\">17<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW15730741\">]<\/span><\/span>. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW130227827\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW130227827\">Nevada and Utah have attempted a comprehensive agreement, but negotiations have not yet been settled.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"LineBreakBlob BlobObject DragDrop BCX0 SCXW130227827\"><span class=\"BCX0 SCXW130227827\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.arcgis.com\/apps\/MapJournal\/index.html?appid=79199afd183e459596e6e21315159354\" width=\"100%\" height=\"800px\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4560\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4560\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Groundwater-Issues-Story-Map-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-714\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Groundwater-Issues-Story-Map-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4560\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this interactive activity via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h4><\/h4>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.npr.org\/templates\/story\/story.php?storyId=10953190\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">NPR story on Snake Valley<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4551\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4551\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Snake-Valley-NPR-Story-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-715\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Snake-Valley-NPR-Story-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4551\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this NPR Story via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><iframe title=\"NPR embedded audio player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/player\/embed\/10953190\/10956967\" width=\"100%\" height=\"290\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\"><\/iframe><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=C-bE-gOOJlU\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SNWA History<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=eCZ8KLrmUXo\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Dean Baker Story<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4553\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4553\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/The-Consequences-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-716\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/The-Consequences-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4553\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3><b>11.4.2 Water Quality and Protection<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Two major federal laws that protect water quality in the United States are the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act. \u00a0The Clean Water Act, an amendment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, protects navigable waters from dumping and point-source pollution. The Safe Drinking Water Act ensures that water that is provided by public water suppliers, like cities and towns, is safe to drink <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW47373929\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW47373929\">18<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW47373929\">]<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">The<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW193906268\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">Superfund<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">program ensures the cleanup of hazardous contamination<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0and can be applied to situations of surface water and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">contamination. It is part of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">Under this act, <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">state governments and<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">can\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">use the superfund to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">pay for <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">remediat<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">ion <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">of a <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">contaminated\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">site<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0and then file a lawsuit against the polluter\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">to recoup\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">the costs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW193906268\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">Or to avoid being sued, the <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">pollut<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">r <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">that caused the contamination may<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">take direct action\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">or provide funds <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">remediat<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\"> the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">contamination<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW193906268\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW193906268\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-80\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-80\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"80\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.5 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4539\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4539\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-717\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.4-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4539\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.4 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.5 Surface Water<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Geologically, a <\/span><b>stream <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">is a body of flowing surface water confined to a channel. Terms such as river, creek and brook are social terms not used in geology. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW52289593\">Streams<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">ero<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">d<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">and transport <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">, making<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">the<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">m the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0most important agents\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">of\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">the earth\u2019s surface<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">along with wave action <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW201920896\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW201920896\">(see <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/12-shorelines\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Chapter 12<\/a>)<\/span><\/span> <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">in<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">ero<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">ding\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">and transport<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">ing<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">.\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">They create much of the surface topography and are an important water resource<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW52289593\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW52289593\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW266511203 BCX0\">Several factors cause<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">streams<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">to erode and transport<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>, but the two main factors are<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">channel gradient and velocity.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">Stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">channel\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">gradient is the slope of the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"> stream usually expressed in meters per kilometer or feet per mile<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">. A steeper\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">channel\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">gradie<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">nt\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">promotes <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a>. When<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1654\">tectonic<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">forces\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun AdvancedProofingIssueV2 SCXW266511203 BCX0\">elevate<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0a mountain, the stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">gradient<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0increases,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">caus<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">ing<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"> mountain <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">to erode downward and deepen its channel eventually forming a valley.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">Stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">channel\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">velocity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">is the speed\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">at which channel water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">flow<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">s. Factors affecting channel v<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">elocity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"> include channel gradient which decreases downstream, discharge and channel size which <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">increase<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\"> as tributaries coalesce, and channel roughness which decreases as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> lining the channel walls decreases in size thus<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">reducing friction<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW266511203 BCX0\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP TrackedChange SCXW266511203 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\"> The combined effect of these factors is that channel velocity actually increases from mountain brooks to the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a> of the stream.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.5.1 Discharge<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>Stream size is measured in terms of <strong>discharge,<\/strong>\u00a0 the volume of water flowing past a point in the stream over a defined time interval. <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Volume is commonly measured in cubic units (length x width x depth), shown as feet<sup>3<\/sup><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (ft<sup>3<\/sup>) or meter<sup>3<\/sup> (m<sup>3<\/sup>)<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0Therefore, the units of discharge are cubic feet per second (<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ft<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">3<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\/sec<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> or cfs). <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">Therefore, the units of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">discharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">are\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cubic meters per second, (<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">m<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00b3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\/s or<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cms, or <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cubic feet per second (ft<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00b3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\/s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">ec<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0or\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 DefaultHighlightTransition SCXW114151887\">cfs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">). <\/span><\/span>Stream discharge increases downstream<b>.<\/b> Smaller streams have less discharge than larger streams. For example, the Mississippi River is the largest river in North America, with an average flow of about\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">16<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">990.1<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">1<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cms<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">600,000\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cfs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">) <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW148589328\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW148589328\">19]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">For comparison, the average<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">discharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">of<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0the Jordan<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">River<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">at Utah Lake is about\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">16.25<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cms<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">574\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cfs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">) <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW117893300\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW117893300\">20<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW117893300\">]<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW117893300\">\u00a0<\/span> <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">and<span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">for\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">annual<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0of the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">Amazon<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">River<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">the world\u2019s largest<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">river<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">annual<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">is about\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">175,56<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">5<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 SCXW114151887\">cms<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">6,200,000\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun Highlight BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SpellingErrorV2 BCX0 DefaultHighlightTransition SCXW114151887\">cfs<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW114151887\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW114151887\">)<span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW23375202\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW23375202\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW23375202\">21<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW23375202\">]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Discharge can be expressed by the following equation: <\/span><\/p>\n<p><b><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Q = V A<\/span><\/b><span data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-leveltext=\"\uf0b7\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"21\" data-aria-posinset=\"1\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">Q =\u00a0discharge\u00a0<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">cms<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">\u00a0<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">(or <\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">ft<sup>3<\/sup><\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">\/sec),<\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li data-leveltext=\"\uf0b7\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"21\" data-aria-posinset=\"2\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">A = cross-sectional area of the\u00a0stream\u00a0channel [width times average depth]<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\"> as <\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">m<\/span><sup><span data-contrast=\"auto\">2<\/span><\/sup><span data-contrast=\"auto\">\u00a0<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">(or in<sup>2<\/sup> or ft<\/span><sup><span data-contrast=\"auto\">2<\/span><\/sup><span data-contrast=\"auto\">),<\/span><span data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:2,&quot;335559739&quot;:120,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li data-leveltext=\"\uf0b7\" data-font=\"Symbol\" data-listid=\"21\" data-aria-posinset=\"3\" data-aria-level=\"1\"><span data-contrast=\"auto\">V = average channel velocity <\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">m\/s<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">\u00a0<\/span><span data-contrast=\"auto\">(or ft\/sec) <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW36958835\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW36958835\">7<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW36958835\">]<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW25992323 BCX0\">At a given location along the stream, velocity varies <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">with\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">width<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">, s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">hape<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">, and depth <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">within the stream<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0as well<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">When<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">stream <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0narrows but<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">discharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">remains constant, the same volume of water\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">must\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">flow<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0through\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0na<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">rrower space causing\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">velocity to increase, similar to putting a thumb over the end of a backyard water hose<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0In addition,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">d<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">uring\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun ContextualSpellingAndGrammarErrorV2 SCXW25992323 BCX0\">rain storms<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0or heavy snow melt,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">runoff<\/span> <\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">increase<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW25992323 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0which increases<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">stream<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">discharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">and<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW25992323 BCX0\">\u00a0velocity.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW133448488 BCX0\">When the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">stream <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">\u00a0curves, the highest velocity will be on the outside of the bend.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">W<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">hen the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">stream <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">\u00a0is straight and uniform<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">ly dee<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">p<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">, the highest velocity is in the channel center <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">at the top of the water where it is the farthest from frictional contact with the <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">stream\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">channel\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">bottom and sides. <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW133448488 BCX0\">In hydrology, the <em>thalweg<\/em> of a rive<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">r is the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">line drawn that shows its natural progression<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">\u00a0and deepest channel<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW133448488 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW133448488 BCX0\">, as is shown in the diagram.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW133448488 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3423\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3423\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/meandering.png\"><img class=\"size-large wp-image-718\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/meandering-1024x376.png\" alt=\"Stream velocity is higher on the outside bend and the surface which is farthest from the friction of the stream bed. The inside of the bend is a shorter distance than the outside. Longer arrows indicate faster velocity. In a river bend, the fastest moving particles are on the outside of the bend, near the cutbank.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"376\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3423\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Thalweg of a river. In a river bend, the fastest moving water is on the outside of the bend, near the cutbank. Stream velocity is higher on the outside bend and the water surface which is farthest from the friction of the stream bed. Longer arrows indicate faster velocity (Earle 2015).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3><b>11.5.2 Runoff vs. Infiltration<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">F<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">actors\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">that\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">dictat<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">e<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0whether water will<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">infiltrate<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">into the ground or run off over the land <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">include <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">the amount, type, and intensity of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0the type and amount of vegeta<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">t<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">ion<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0cover<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0the slope of the land<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">and aspect of the land<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0preexisting conditions<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">;<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0and the type of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">in the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">i<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">nfiltrated\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">area<\/span><\/span>. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">High<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">intensity<\/span> <\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">rain will cause more<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">runoff<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">than the same amount of rain spread out over a longer duration.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">If the rain<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">falls<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">faster than the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a>\u2019s\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">properties <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">allow it to<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">infiltrate, then the water that cannot<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">infiltrate<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">becomes<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">runoff.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\"> Dense vegetation can increase\u00a0infiltration, as the vegetative cover slows\u00a0<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\">the\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\">water particle<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u2019<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\">s\u00a0<\/span>overland flow giving them more time to infiltrate.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>If a parcel of land has more direct solar radiation or higher seasonal temperatures, there will be less infiltration and runoff, as evapotranspiration rates will be higher.\u00a0 <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">As the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">land<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u2019s\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">slope <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">increases, so does<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">runoff,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">because<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW241541500\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">water is more inclined to move downslope than<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">infiltrate<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">into the ground.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW241541500\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Extreme examples are a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a> and a cliff, where water infiltrates much quicker into a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a> than a cliff that has the same <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a> properties. \u00a0Because saturated soil does not have the capacity to take more water, runoff is generally greater over saturated soil. Clay-rich <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a> cannot accept infiltration as quickly as gravel-rich <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soil<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.5.3 <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Drainage Patterns<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The pattern of tributaries within a region is called <strong>drainage pattern<\/strong>. They depend largely on the type of rock beneath, and on structures within that rock (such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_502\">folds<\/a> and faults). The main types of drainage patterns are dendritic, trellis, rectangular, radial, and deranged. <\/span><b>Dendritic patterns <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">are the most common and develop in areas where the underlying rock or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> are uniform in character, mostly flat lying, and can be eroded equally easily in all directions<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Examples are alluvial <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> or flat lying sedimentary rocks. <\/span><b>Trellis patterns<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> typically develop where sedimentary rocks have been folded or tilted and then eroded to varying degrees depending on their strength. The Appalachian Mountains in eastern United States have many good examples of trellis drainage<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><b>Rectangular patterns<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> develop in areas that have very little topography and a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> of bedding planes, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_986\">joints<\/a><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, or faults that form a rectangular network. A <\/span><b>radial pattern<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> forms when streams flow away from a central high point such as a mountain top or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcano<\/a>, with the individual streams typically having dendritic drainage patterns<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. In places with extensive limestone deposits, streams can disappear into the groundwater via caves and subterranean drainage and this creates a <\/span><b>deranged pattern <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW69782112\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW69782112\">4]<\/span><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3424\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3424\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/DrainagePattern.png\"><img class=\"size-large wp-image-719\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DrainagePattern-1024x199.png\" alt=\"Various stream drainage patterns.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"199\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3424\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Various stream drainage patterns.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><b>11.5.4 Fluvial Processes<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Fluvial<\/strong> processes dictate how a stream behaves and include factors controlling fluvial <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production, transport, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a>. Fluvial processes include velocity, slope and gradient, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a>, transportation, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a>, stream equilibrium, and base level. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Streams can be divided into three main zones: the many smaller tributaries in the source area, the main trunk stream in the floodplain and the distributaries at the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a> of the stream. Major stream systems like the Mississippi are composed of many source areas, many tributaries and trunk streams, all coalescing into the one main stream draining the region. The zones of a stream are defined as 1) the zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production (erosion), 2) the zone of transport, and 3) the zone of deposition. The <\/span>zone of sediment production<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is located in the <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a><\/strong> of the stream. In t<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">he zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> transport, there is a general balance between <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> of the finer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> in its channel and transport of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> across the floodplain<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Streams eventually flow into the ocean or end in quiet water with a delta which is a z<\/span>one of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">located at the <\/span><b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a> <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">of a stream<span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234245023\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW234245023\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234245023\">6]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The <\/span><b>longitudinal profile<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of a stream is a plot of the elevation of the stream channel at all points along its course and illustrates the location of the three zones <span class=\"FindHit BCX0 SCXW40744565\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW40744565\">22]<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Zone of Sediment Production\u00a0<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production is located in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> of a stream where rills and gullies erode <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> and contribute to larger <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> streams. These tributaries carry <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> and water further downstream to the main trunk of the stream. Tributaries at the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> have the steepest gradient;\u00a0 <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> there produces considerable <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> carried b the stream. Headwater streams tend to be narrow and straight with small or non-existent floodplains adjacent to the channel. Since the zone of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> production is generally the steepest part of the stream, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> are generally located in relatively high elevations. The Rocky Mountains of Wyoming and Colorado west of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1653\">Continental<\/a> Divide contain much of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> for the Colorado River which then flows from Colorado through Utah and Arizona to Mexico.\u00a0 <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">Headwaters<\/a> of the Mississippi river <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> lie east of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1653\">Continental<\/a> Divide in the Rocky Mountains and west of the Appalachian Divide.<\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Zone of Sediment TransPORT\u00a0<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3425\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3425\" style=\"width: 466px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Stream_Load.gif\"><img class=\"wp-image-720\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Stream_Load-300x161.gif\" alt=\"A stream carries dissolved load, suspended load, and bedload.\" width=\"466\" height=\"250\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3425\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A stream carries dissolved load, suspended load, and bedload.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Streams transport <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> great distances from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> to the ocean, the ultimate depositional basins. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">Sediment<\/a> transportation is directly related to stream gradient and velocity. Faster and steeper streams can transport larger <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> grains. When velocity slows down, larger <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> settle to the channel bottom. When the velocity increases, those larger <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> are entrained and move again. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Transported <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> are grouped into <\/span>bedload<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span>suspended load<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, and <\/span>dissolved load as illustrated in the above image<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">Sediments<\/a> moved along the channel bottom are the <\/span><b>bedload <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">that<\/span><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> typically consists of the largest and densest particles. Bedload is moved by <\/span><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1498\">saltation<\/a> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(bouncing) and <\/span>traction <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(being pushed or rolled along by the force of the flow)<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Smaller\u00a0 particles are picked up by flowing water and carried in suspension as <\/span><b>suspended load<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The particle size that is carried in suspended and bedload depends on the flow velocity of the stream. <\/span><b>Dissolved load<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> in a stream is the total of the ions in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1783\">solution<\/a> from chemical weathering, including such common ions such as bicarbonate (-HCO<sup>3<\/sup><sub>-<\/sub><span style=\"font-size: 16px;\">),<\/span><sub>\u00a0<\/sub>calcium (Ca<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+2<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), chloride (Cl<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">-1<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), potassium (K<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+1<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), and sodium (Na<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+1<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). The amounts of these ions are not affected by flow velocity.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4546\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4546\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Bed-Load-Sediment-Transport-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-721\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bed-Load-Sediment-Transport-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4546\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3459\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3459\" style=\"width: 329px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/natural-lev\u00e9es.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-871\" title=\"Source: Physical Geology, Steven Earle https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2015\/08\/natural-lev%C3%A9es.png\" src=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/natural-lev\u00e9es.png#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"Profile of stream channel at bankfull stage, flood stage, and deposition of natural levee (Earle 2015).\" width=\"329\" height=\"324\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3459\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Profile of stream channel at bankfull stage, flood stage, and deposition of natural levee [zotpressInText item=\"{R6VDH77A}\" format=\"%num%\" brackets=\"yes\" separator=\"comma\"].<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A <\/span><b>floodplain <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">is the flat area of land adjacent to a stream channel inundated with flood water on a regular basis. Stream flooding is a natural process that adds <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> to floodplains. A stream typically reaches its greatest velocity when it is close to flooding, known as the <\/span><b>bankfull stage<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. As soon as the flooding stream overtops its banks and flows onto its floodplain, the velocity decreases. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">Sediment<\/a> that was being carried by the swiftly moving water is deposited at the edge of the channel, forming a low ridge or <\/span><b>natural lev\u00e9e. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In addition, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> are added to the floodplain during this flooding process contributing to fertile <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soils<\/a> <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW137018927\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW137018927\">4]<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Zone of SEDIMENT Deposition<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>D<\/strong><b>eposition <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">occurs when bedload and suspended load come to rest on the bottom of the stream channel, lake, or ocean due to decrease in stream gradient and reduction in velocity. While both <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> occur in the zone of transport such as on <strong>point bars<\/strong> and <strong>cut banks<\/strong>, ultimate <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> where the stream reaches a lake or ocean. L<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">andforms called <\/span><b>deltas <\/b>form where the stream enters quiet water <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">composed of the finest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> such as fine sand, silt, and clay. <\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Equilibrium and Base Level<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3426\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3426\" style=\"width: 434px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/HalfwayCreek_Long_Profile-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-722\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/HalfwayCreek_Long_Profile-1-300x190.jpg\" alt=\"Longitudinal Profile of a creek in Indiana, showing steep gradient in its headwaters and shallower gradients toward its mouth.\" width=\"434\" height=\"275\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3426\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Example of a longitudinal profile of a stream; Halfway Creek, Indiana<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">All three stream zones are present in the typical\u00a0<\/span><b>longitudinal profile<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of a stream which plots the elevation of the channel at all points along its course (see figure). All streams have a long profile. The long profile shows the stream gradient from headwater to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a>. All streams attempt to achieve an energetic balance among <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a>, transport, gradient, velocity, discharge, and channel characteristics along the stream\u2019s profile. This balance is called <\/span><strong>equilibrium, <\/strong>a state called <strong>grade<\/strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Another factor influencing equilibrium is <\/span><b>base level<\/b>, the<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> elevation of the stream's <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a> representing<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the lowest level to which a stream can erode. The ultimate base level is, of course, sea-level. A lake or reservoir may also represent base level for a stream entering it.\u00a0 The Great <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">Basin<\/a> of western Utah, Nevada, and parts of some surrounding states contains no outlets to the sea and provides internal base levels for streams within it.\u00a0 Base level for a stream entering the ocean changes if sea-level rises or falls. Base level also changes if a natural or human-made dam is added along a stream's profile. When base level is lowered, a stream will cut down and deepen its channel. When base level rises, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> increases as the stream adjusts attempting to establish a new state of equilibrium<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. A stream that has approximately achieved equilibrium is called a <strong>graded stream<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.5.5 Fluvial Landforms <\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Stream landforms are the land features formed on the surface by either <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a>. The stream-related landforms described here are primarily related to channel types. <\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Channel Types<\/span><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3126\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3126\" style=\"width: 465px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/BraidedWaimakariri.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-422\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/BraidedWaimakariri-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The river has many inter-braided channels.\" width=\"465\" height=\"349\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3126\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The braided Waimakariri river in New Zealand.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3124\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3124\" style=\"width: 466px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/MeanderingRio-cauto-cuba.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-421\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MeanderingRio-cauto-cuba-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The river wiggles back and forth.\" width=\"466\" height=\"350\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3124\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Air photo of the meandering river, R\u00edo Cauto, Cuba.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Stream channels can be straight, braided, meandering, or entrenched. The gradient, sediment load, discharge, and location of base level all influence channel type. <\/span><b>Straight channels<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> are relatively straight, located near the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a>, have steep gradients, low discharge, and narrow V-shaped valleys. Examples of these are located in mountainous areas.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Braided streams<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> have multiple channels splitting and recombining around numerous mid-channel bars<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. These are found in floodplains with low gradients in areas with near sources of coarse <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> such as trunk streams draining mountains or in front of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a>. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Meandering streams<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> have a single channel that curves back and forth like a snake within its <\/span>floodplain <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">where it emerges from its <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1775\">headwaters<\/a> into the zone of transport<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Meandering streams are dynamic creating a wide floodplain by eroding and extending meander loops side-to-side. The highest velocity water is located on the outside of a meander bend. \u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">Erosion<\/a> of the outside of the curve creates a feature called a <b>cut bank<\/b> and the meander extends its loop wider by this <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3429\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3429\" style=\"width: 406px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_CirqueMadeleine.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-723\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_CirqueMadeleine-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Sandy deposition at the inside of a bend (point bar) and erosion on the outside of the bend (cut bank) of a river in France.\" width=\"406\" height=\"305\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3429\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Point bar and cut bank on the Cirque de la Madeleine in France.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The <b>thalweg <\/b>of the stream is the deepest part of the stream channel. In the straight parts of the channel, the thalweg and highest velocity are in the center of the channel. But at the bend of a meandering stream, the thalweg shifts toward the cut bank. Opposite the cutbank on the inside bend of the channel is the lowest stream velocity and is an area of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> called a <b>point bar<\/b>.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In areas of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1654\">tectonic<\/a> uplift such as on the Colorado Plateau, meandering streams that once flowed on the plateau surface have become entrenched or incised as uplift occurred and the stream cut its meandering channel down into <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1023\">bedrock<\/a>. Over the past several million years, the Colorado River and its tributaries have incised into the flat lying rocks of the plateau by hundreds, even thousands of feet creating deep canyons including the Grand Canyon in Arizona.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3413\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3413\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/bend2.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-699 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/12\/bend2-1024x436.jpg\" alt=\"Entrenched meander of the Colorado River, downstream of Page, Arizona. High cliffs, that lead down to a river with narrow shores.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"436\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3413\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">An entrenched meander on the Colorado River in the eastern entrance to the Grand Canyon.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3431\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3431\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1024px-GooseNeckStateParkPanorama.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-724\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1024px-GooseNeckStateParkPanorama.jpg\" alt=\"Panoramic view of incised meanders of the San Juan River at Gooseneck State Park, Utah.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"286\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3431\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Panoramic view of incised meanders of the San Juan River at Gooseneck State Park, Utah.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3432\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3432\" style=\"width: 452px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Lake_Powell_and_The_Rincon_Utah_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-725\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lake_Powell_and_The_Rincon_Utah_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The Rincon is an abandoned meander loop on the entrenched Colorado River in Lake Powell.\" width=\"452\" height=\"301\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3432\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Rincon is an abandoned meaner loop on the entrenched Colorado River in Lake Powell.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3433\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3433\" style=\"width: 332px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Landsat-image-of-lower-Mississippi-River-floodplain.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-726\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Landsat-image-of-lower-Mississippi-River-floodplain-254x300.jpg\" alt=\"Satellite image of lower Mississippi River floodplain\" width=\"332\" height=\"393\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3433\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Landsat image of lower Mississippi River flodplain<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Many fluvial landforms occur on a floodplain associated with a meandering stream. Meander activity and r<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">egular flooding contribute to widening the floodplain by eroding adjacent uplands. The stream channels are confined by <\/span><b>natural levees<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that have been built up over many years of regular flooding.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Natural levees can isolate and direct flow from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> channels on the floodplain from immediately reaching the main channel. \u00a0These isolated streams are called <\/span><b>yazoo streams<\/b> and<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> flow parallel to the main trunk stream until there is an opening in the levee to allow for a belated confluence<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4548\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4548\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/How-Is-A-Levee-Formed-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-727\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/How-Is-A-Levee-Formed-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4548\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">To limit flooding, humans build artificial levees on flood plains. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">Sediment<\/a> that breaches the levees during flood stage is called <\/span><b>crevasse splays<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and delivers silt and clay onto the floodplain. These deposits are rich in nutrients and often make good farm land. When floodwaters crest over human-made levees, the levees quickly erode with potentially catastrophic impacts.\u00a0 Because of the good <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_250\">soils<\/a>, farmers regularly return after floods and rebuild year after year.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3434\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3434\" style=\"width: 456px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Nowitna_river-with-approaching-cutoff.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-728\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Nowitna_river-with-approaching-cutoff-300x211.jpg\" alt=\"Meander nearing cutoff on the Nowitna River in Alaska\" width=\"456\" height=\"321\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3434\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Meander nearing cutoff on the Nowitna River in Alaska<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Through <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> on the outsides of the meanders and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> on the insides, the channels of meandering streams move back and forth across their floodplain over time<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. On very broad floodplains with very low gradients, the meander bends can become so extreme that they cut across themselves at a narrow neck (see figure) called a <strong>cutoff<\/strong>. The former channel becomes isolated and forms an <\/span><b>oxbow lake<\/b> seen on the right of the figure<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0Eventually the oxbow lake fills in with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> and becomes a <\/span>wetland <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">and eventually a <\/span><b>meander scar<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">S<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">tream meanders can migrate\u00a0and form oxbow lakes in a relatively short amount of time. Where stream channels form geographic and political boundaries, this shifting of channels can cause conflicts.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4557\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4557\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Why-Do-Rivers-Curve-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-729\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Why-Do-Rivers-Curve-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4557\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3435\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3435\" style=\"width: 356px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-730\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Alluvial_fan_in_Iran-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"Satellite image of alluvial fan in Iraq.\" width=\"356\" height=\"237\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3435\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Alluvial fan in Iraq seen by NASA satellite. A stream emerges from the canyon and creates this cone-shaped deposit.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>Alluvial fans<\/strong> are a depositional landform created where streams emerge from mountain canyons into a valley. The channel that had been confined by the canyon walls is no longer confined, slows down and spreads out, dropping its bedload of all sizes, forming a delta in the air of the valley.\u00a0 As distributary channels fill with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>, the stream is diverted laterally, and the alluvial fan develops into a cone shaped landform with distributaries radiating from the canyon <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1776\">mouth<\/a>. Alluvial fans are common in the dry climates of the West where ephemeral streams emerge from canyons in the ranges of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-76\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-76\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"76\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.3 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4541\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4541\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.5-Interactive-Map-of-Mississipi-River-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-731\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.5-Interactive-Map-of-Mississipi-River-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4541\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.5 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3436\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3436\" style=\"width: 417px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_Mississippiriver-new-01.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-732\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_Mississippiriver-new-01-300x275.png\" alt=\"The area that contributes to the tributaries of the Mississippi River.\" width=\"417\" height=\"382\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3436\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Location of the Mississippi River drainage basin and Mississippi River delta.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0A <strong>delta<\/strong> is formedwhen a stream reaches a quieter body of water such as a lake or the ocean and the bedload and suspended load is deposited<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. If wave <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1755\">erosion<\/a> from the water body is greater than <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> from the river, a delta will not form. The largest and most famous delta in the United States is the Mississippi River delta formed where the Mississippi River flows into the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi River drainage basin is the largest in North America, draining 41%<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">of the contiguous United States <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW57176381\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW57176381\">24]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Because of the large drainage area, the river carries a large amount of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>. The Mississippi River is a major shipping route and human engineering has ensured that the channel has been artificially straightened and remains fixed within the floodplain. The river\u00a0 is now 229 km shorter than it was before humans began engineering it <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW57176381\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW57176381\">24]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Because of these restraints, the delta is now focused on one trunk channel and has created a \u201cbird\u2019s foot\u201d pattern<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The two <\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/earthobservatory.nasa.gov\/IOTD\/view.php?id=8103&amp;eocn=image&amp;eoci=related_image\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">NASA images<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> below of the delta show how the shoreline has retreated and land was inundated with water while <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> was focused at end of the distributaries. These images have changed over a 25 year <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">period<\/a> from 1976 to 2001. These are stark changes illustrating sea-level rise and land <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1758\">compaction<\/a> of peat due to the lack of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> resupply <span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW213676927 BCX0\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW213676927 BCX0\">25]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-77\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-77\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"77\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.4 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4542\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4542\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.5-June-10-1976-Landsat-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-733\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.5-June-10-1976-Landsat-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4542\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this interactive activity via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The formation of the Mississippi River delta started about 7500 years ago when postglacial sea level stopped rising<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. In the past 7000 years, prior to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a> modifications, the Mississippi River delta formed several sequential lobes. The river abandoned each lobe for a more preferred route to the Gulf of Mexico. These delta lobes were reworked by the ocean waves of the Gulf of Mexico <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW144287476\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW144287476\">26]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0After each lobe was abandoned by the river, isostatic depression and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1758\">compaction<\/a> of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> caused <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> and the land to sink.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3437\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3437\" style=\"width: 464px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_QuakeLake.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-734\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_QuakeLake-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"Delta in Quake Lake Montana. Deposition of this delta began in 1959, when the Madison river was dammed by the landslide caused by the 7.5 magnitude earthquake.\" width=\"464\" height=\"309\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3437\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Delta in Quake Lake Montana. Deposition of this delta began in 1959, when the Madison river was dammed by the landslide caused by the 7.5 magnitude earthquake.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A clear example of how deltas form came from an earthquake. During the 1959 Madison Canyon 7.5 magnitude earthquake in Montana, a large <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_246\">landslide<\/a> dammed the Madison River forming Quake Lake <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">still there today <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11982677\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW11982677\">27]<\/span>. A small <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1774\">tributary<\/a> stream that once flowed into the Madison River, now flows into Quake Lake forming a delta c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">omposed of coarse <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> actively eroded from the mountainous upthrown block to the north. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Deltas can be further categorized as wave-dominated or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1480\">tide<\/a>-dominated. Wave-dominated deltas occur where the tides are small and wave energy dominates. An example is the Nile River delta in the Mediterranean Sea that has the classic shape of the Greek character (\u0394) from which the landform is named<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. A <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1480\">tide<\/a>-dominated delta forms when ocean tides are powerful and influence the shape of the delta. For example, Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta in the Bay of Bengal (near India and Bangladesh) is the world\u2019s largest delta and mangrove swamp called the Sundarban <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW49111969\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW49111969\">29]<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3438\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3438\" style=\"width: 221px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Sundarban-Delta-Bangladesh.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-735 size-medium\" style=\"font-weight: bold; background-color: transparent; text-align: inherit;\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sundarban-Delta-Bangladesh-221x300.png\" alt=\"Tide-dominated delta of the Ganges River\" width=\"221\" height=\"300\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3438\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sundarban Delta in Bangladesh, a tide-dominated delta of the Ganges River<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>At the Sundarban Delta in Bangladesh, t<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">idal forces create linear intrusions of seawater into the delta. This delta also holds the world\u2019s largest mangrove swamp<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3439\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3439\" style=\"width: 698px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit-e1491789834381.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-736\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit-e1491789834381.jpg\" alt=\"The Nile Delta is a triangular patch of green in an otherwise sandy brown area.\" width=\"698\" height=\"259\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3439\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nile Delta showing its classic \u201cdelta\u201d shape.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3440\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3440\" style=\"width: 420px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_Logan_Bonneville_Delta.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-737\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_Logan_Bonneville_Delta-237x300.jpg\" alt=\"Contours of the Logan Delta, incised by the Logan River.\" width=\"420\" height=\"531\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3440\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of the Logan Delta (Gilbert 1890).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Lake Bonneville was a large, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_746\">pluvial lake<\/a> that occupied the western half of Utah and parts of eastern Nevada from about 30,000 to 12,000 years ago<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The lake filled to a maximum elevation as great as approximately 5100 feet above mean sea level, filling the basins, leaving the mountains exposed, many as islands. The presence of the lake allowed for <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1757\">deposition<\/a> of both fine grained lake mud and silt and coarse gravels from the mountains. Variations in lake level were controlled by regional <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_757\">climate<\/a> and a catastrophic failure of Lake Bonneville\u2019s main outlet, Red Rock Pass\u00a0<span class=\"TextRun Strikethrough BCX0 SCXW10377017\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10377017\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW10377017\">31]<\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0 during extended <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">periods<\/a> of time in which the lake level remained stable, wave-cut terraces were produced that can be seen today on the flanks of many mountains in the region.\u00a0 Significant deltas formed at the mouths of major canyons in Salt Lake, Cache, and other Utah valleys. \u00a0The Great Salt Lake is the remnant of Lake Bonneville and cities have built up on these delta deposits.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3441\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3441\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/ggk03413-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-large wp-image-3441\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/ggk03413-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Deltaic deposits of Lake Bonneville near Logan, Utah.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"665\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3441\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Deltaic deposits of Lake Bonneville near Logan, Utah; wave cut terraces can be seen on the mountain slope.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><b>Stream terraces<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> are remnants of older floodplains located above the existing floodplain and river. Like entrenched meanders, stream terraces form when uplift occurs or base level drops and streams erode downward, their meanders widening a new flood plain. Stream terraces can also form from extreme flood events associated with retreating <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1516\">glaciers<\/a>. A classic example of multiple stream terraces are along the Snake River in Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW162599196\">[3<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW162599196\">2; 33]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\" border=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%;\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_3443\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3443\" style=\"width: 375px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_TetonTerraceDSC_0076-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-3443\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_TetonTerraceDSC_0076-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Landscape with river cutting into plane. Three different levels of flat surfaces that represent different base levels.\" width=\"375\" height=\"250\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3443\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Terraces along the Snake River, Wyoming.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%;\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_3444\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3444\" style=\"width: 333px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/11.6_StreamTerrace_IMGP4422.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-740\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6_StreamTerrace_IMGP4422-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"River along several different levels of flat floodplains\" width=\"333\" height=\"250\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3444\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Terraces in Glen Roy, Scotland<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-81\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-81\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"81\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.6 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4540\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4540\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.5-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-741\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.5-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4540\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.5 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">11.6 Groundwater<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Groundwater is an important source of freshwater. \u00a0It can be found at varying depths in all places under the ground, but is limited by extractable quantity and quality.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4555\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4555\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/What-is-an-Aquifer-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-742\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/What-is-an-Aquifer-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4555\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><b>11.6.1 Porosity and Permeability<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW254024023\">An\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><strong><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/strong><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0is a\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">rock unit<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">that contains extractable<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">ground<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">water.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">A good aquifer must be both <strong>porous<\/strong> and <strong>permeable<\/strong>. P<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">orosity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">is the <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">space between grains <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">that can hold <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">water, <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">expressed as the percentage of open space in the total volume of the rock<\/span>.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\"> P<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">ermeability comes from connectivity of the spaces that <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">allows water to\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">move in the aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW254024023\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW254024023\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Porosity can occur as primary porosity, as space between sand grains or vesicles in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_228\">volcanic<\/a> rocks, or secondary porosity as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_986\">fractures<\/a> or dissolved spaces in\u00a0 rock). <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1758\">Compaction<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1759\">cementation<\/a> during <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1760\">lithification<\/a> of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> reduces porosity (see chapter <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/5-weathering-erosion-and-sedimentary-rocks\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">5.3<\/a>).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A combination of a place to contain water (porosity) and the ability to move water (permeability) makes a good <strong>aquifer<\/strong>\u2014a rock unit or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> that allows extraction of groundwater. \u00a0Well-sorted <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> have higher porosity because there are not smaller <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> particles filling in the spaces between the larger particles. Shales made of clays generally have high porosity, but the pores are poorly connected, thereby causing low permeability. \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4549\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4549\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Porosity-and-Permeability-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-743\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Porosity-and-Permeability-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4549\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW26704983\">Wh<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">ile permeability is a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">n important<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u00a0measure of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">a\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">porous<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u00a0material<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u2019s ability to trans<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">mit<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u00a0water<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">hydraulic conductivity is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">more commonly use<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">d by geologists<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">\u00a0to measure\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">how easily a fluid is transmitted<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW26704983\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW26704983\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><b>Hydraulic conductivity<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">measure<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">s both the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">permeability of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">porous\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">material\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">the properties\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">of the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">water, or whate<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">ver\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">fluid<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">being transmitted like oil or gas<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW234101823\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW234101823\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">Because\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">hydraulic conductivity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">also measures the properties of the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0fluid<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">, such as viscosity<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">,<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">it <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">is used by <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">both<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">petroleum<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">geologists and\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">hydrogeologists to describe\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">both<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">the production capability of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">oil<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">reservoirs<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">aquifers. High<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">hydraulic conductivity<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">indicates\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW70667293 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">that fluid transmits rapidly <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">through an<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW70667293 BCX0\">aquifer.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.6.2 Aquifers\u00a0<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW76684060\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW76684060\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW76684060\">Aquifers are rock layers with sufficient porosity and permeability to allow water to be both contained and move within them. For rock or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span> to be considered an aquifer, its pores must be at least partially filled with water and it must be permeable enough to transmit water. Drinking water aquifers must also contain <strong>potable <\/strong>water. Aquifers can vary dramatically in scale, from spanning several formations covering large regions to being a local formation in a limited area. Aquifers adequate for water supply are both permeable, porous, and potable.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.6.3 Groundwater Flow<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3445\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3445\" style=\"width: 320px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Vadose_zone.gif\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-744\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Vadose_zone.gif\" alt=\"The groundwater table is where the pores in an aquifer are completely saturated.\" width=\"320\" height=\"243\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3445\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Zone of saturation.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When surface water infiltrates or seeps into the ground, it usually enters the unsaturated zone also called the vadose zone, or zone of aeration. \u00a0The <\/span><b>vadose zone<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is the volume of geologic material between the land surface and the zone of saturation <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">where the pore spaces are not completely filled with water <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW263278408\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW263278408\">34<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW263278408\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Plant roots inhabit the upper vadose zone and fluid pressure in the pores is less than atmospheric pressure. \u00a0Below the vadose zone is the capillary fringe. \u00a0Capillary fringe is the usually thin zone below the vadose zone where the pores are completely filled with water (<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturation<\/a>), but the fluid pressure is less than atmospheric pressure. \u00a0The pores in the capillary fringe are filled because of capillary action, which occurs because of a combination of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1771\">adhesion<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1770\">cohesion<\/a>. Below the capillary fringe is the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturated<\/a> zone or phreatic zone, where the pores are completely <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturated<\/a> and the fluid in the pores is at or above atmospheric pressure<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. The interface between the capillary fringe and the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturated<\/a> zone marks the location of the water table.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong>W<\/strong><b>ells<\/b>\u00a0are conduits that extend into the ground with openings to the aquifers, to extract from, measure, and sometimes add water to the aquifer. Wells are generally the way that geologists and hydrologist measure the depth to groundwater from the land surface as well as withdraw water from aquifers.<\/p>\n<p>Water is found throughout the pore spaces in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1023\">bedrock<\/a>. The <b>water table<\/b> is the area below which the pores are fully <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1784\">saturated<\/a> with water. The simplest case of a water table is when the aquifer is unconfined, meaning it does not have a confining layer above it. Confining layers can pressurize aquifers by trapping water that is recharged at a higher elevation underneath the confining layer, allowing for a potentiometric surface higher than the top of the aquifer, and sometimes higher than the land surface.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3446\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3446\" style=\"width: 550px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/wa-aquifer_types-1.gif\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-745\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/wa-aquifer_types-1.gif\" alt=\"In a confined aquifer, the potentiometric surface can rise above the ground.\" width=\"550\" height=\"325\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3446\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Potentiometric surface and water table in an aquifer system.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A <\/span><b>confining layer<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is a low permeability layer above and\/or below an aquifer that restricts the water from moving in and out of the aquifer. \u00a0Confining layers include <\/span><b>aquicludes<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which are so impermeable that no water travels through them, and <\/span><b>aquitards<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which significantly decrease the speed at which water travels through them. <\/span>The <b>potentiometric surface<\/b> represents the height that water would rise in a well penetrating the pressurized aquifer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>. Breaches in the pressurized aquifer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>, like faults or wells, can cause <b>springs<\/b> or <b>flowing wells<\/b>, also known as <b>artesian wells<\/b>.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The water table will generally mirror surface topography, though more subdued, because hydrostatic pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure along the surface of the water table. \u00a0If the water table intersects the ground surface the result will be water at the surface in the form of a gaining stream, spring, lake, or wetland. The water table intersects the channel for <strong>gaining streams<\/strong> which then gains water from the water table.\u00a0 The channels for <strong>losing streams<\/strong> lie below the water table, thus losing streams lose water to the water table.\u00a0 Losing streams may be seasonal during a dry season or <strong>ephemeral<\/strong> in dry climates where they may normally be dry and carry water only after rain storms. Ephemeral streams pose a serious danger of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1506\">flash flooding<\/a>\u00a0in dry climates.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4556\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4556\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Where-is-the-Water-Table-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-746\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Where-is-the-Water-Table-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4556\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mentioned in the video is the <a href=\"https:\/\/groundwaterwatch.usgs.gov\/default.asp\">USGS Groundwater Watch<\/a> site.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><i><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW96173255 BCX0\">Using wells, g<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">eologists measure the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">water table<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u2019s\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">hei<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">ght <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">potentiometric surface<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">Graphs of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">depth <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">to <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">over<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">time<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">are\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">known as <strong>hydrographs<\/strong> and<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">sho<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">w <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">changes in the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">water table<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">over time.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">W<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">ell<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">water level\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">controlled by many factors <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">and <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">can change very frequently, even <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">every minute<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">, seasonally, and over longer<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">periods<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">of time<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW96173255 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW96173255 BCX0\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span> \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3448\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3448\" style=\"width: 432px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/USGS.404356111503901.143976.72019.00002.19750718.19890930..0..pres-1.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-747\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/USGS.404356111503901.143976.72019.00002.19750718.19890930..0..pres-1.png\" alt=\"A hydrograph is a line graph that shows depth to water with time.\" width=\"432\" height=\"320\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3448\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Example of a hydrograph<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW257587516\">In 1856,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">French engineer\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">Henry Darcy developed a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> to <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">show <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">how discharge through a porous medium is controlled by permeability, pressure, and cross<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">sectional area.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">To\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">prove<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">this<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">\u00a0relationship<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">Darcy <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1731\">experiment<\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">ed with<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\"> tubes of packed <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> with water running through them<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW257587516\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW257587516\">. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">The results<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">o<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">f his experiments<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">empirica<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">l<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">ly\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">established<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">a\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1724\">quantitative<\/a> measure of hydraulic conductivity and discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">\u00a0that is known as Darcy\u2019s <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">l<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW38581994\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW38581994\">aw. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>The relationships described by Darcy\u2019s Law have close similarities to Fourier's law in the field of heat conduction, Ohm's law in the field of electrical networks, or Fick's law in diffusion <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1733\">theory<\/a>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Q=KA(<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0394<strong>h\/<\/strong><\/span>L)<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3449\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3449\" style=\"width: 431px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Darcys_Law.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-748\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Darcys_Law.png\" alt=\"Cylinder with a length (L), cross-sectional area (A), which is filled with a material of a specific hydraulic conductivity.\" width=\"431\" height=\"215\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3449\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pipe showing apparatus that would demonstrate Darcy\u2019s Law. \u0394h would be measured across L from a to b.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Q = flow (volume\/time)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">K = hydraulic conductivity (length\/time<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A = cross-sectional area of flow (area)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0394h = change in pressure head (pressure difference)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">L = distance between pressure (h) measurements (length)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0394h\/<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">L is commonly referred to as the hydraulic gradient<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW247876017 BCX0\">Pumping water from an<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">unconfi<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">ned\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">aquifer<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">lowers the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">water table<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">. Pumping water from a confined aquifer lowers the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">pressure and\/<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">or<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">potentiometric surface<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">around the well.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">In an unconfined<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">aquifer, the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">water table<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">is lowered as water is removed from the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">near the well producing <strong>drawdown <\/strong>and a <strong>cone of depression<\/strong> (see figure). In a confined<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW247876017 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW247876017 BCX0\">aquifer, pumping on an artesian well reduces the pressure or potentiometric surface around the well.<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"EOP SCXW247876017 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_892\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-892\" style=\"width: 3104px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/Cone_of_Depression_WSP2220.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-749 size-full\" title=\"Source: Heath, 1983, USGS\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cone_of_Depression_WSP2220.png\" alt=\"The shape of the potentiometric surface or water table around a pumping well is cone-shaped, where groundwater level has the greatest drawdown near the well.\" width=\"3104\" height=\"1353\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-892\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cones of depression (Heath 1983).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When one cone of depression intersects another cone of depression or a barrier feature like an impermeable mountain block, drawdown is intensified. When a cone of depression intersects a recharge zone, the cone of depression is lessened.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.6.4 Recharge<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The\u00a0<\/span><b>recharge <\/b>area<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is where surface water enters an aquifer through the process of infiltration. Recharge areas are generally topographically high locations of an aquifer. \u00a0They are characterized by losing streams and permeable rock that allows infiltration into the aquifer. Recharge areas mark the beginning of groundwater flow paths.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">In the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">Province<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">, <\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">recharge<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">areas<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0for\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">unconsolidated<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">aquifers<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">of the valleys <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">are along <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">mountain\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">foothills<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">. <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">In\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW51221263\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">the foothills of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW51221263\">Salt Lake Valley, <\/span><\/span>losing streams contribute water to the gravel-rich deltaic deposits of ancient Lake Bonneville, in some cases feeding artesian wells in the Salt Lake Valley.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW103813114\">An\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">aquifer<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">management practice<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">is to induce <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">r<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">echarge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\"> through storage and recovery<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">Geologists and hydrologists<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">can<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0increase the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">recharge\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">rate<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">into an<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">using<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0i<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">njection wells and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">infiltration<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">galleries<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0or\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">basins<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">35<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">].\u00a0<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">Injection wells pump water into an<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0where it\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">can be<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW103813114\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0stored<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW103813114\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Injection wells are regulated by state and federal governments to ensure that the injected water is not negatively impacting the quality or supply of the existing groundwater in the aquifer. \u00a0Some aquifers can store significant quantities of water, allowing water managers to use the aquifer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> like a surface reservoir. Water is stored in the aquifer during <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">periods<\/a> of low water demand and high water supply and later extracted during times of high water demand and low water supply.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3451\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3451\" style=\"width: 550px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/wcartificialrecharge.gif\"><img class=\"wp-image-750\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/wcartificialrecharge.gif\" alt=\"Different ways an aquifer can be recharged. Rivers, injection wells, and infiltration can all contribute to aquifer recharge.\" width=\"550\" height=\"271\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3451\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Different ways an aquifer can be recharged.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><b>11.6.5 Discharge<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><strong>Discharge<\/strong> areas are where\u00a0the<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">water table or potentiometric surface<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">intersects the land surface.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">Discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">areas mark the end of<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">flow paths<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW180141458\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW180141458\">.<span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">These areas\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">are characterized by springs,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW87410731\">flowing\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">artesian<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">wells, gaining<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">streams, and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">playas<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">i<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">n the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\"> dry<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">valley<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0basins<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0of\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1514\">Basin and Range<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">Province\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">of\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">the western United States<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW87410731\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW87410731\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>11.6.6 Groundwater mining and subsidence<\/b><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Like other <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1738\">natural resources<\/a> on our planet, the quantity of fresh and potable water is finite.\u00a0 The only natural source of water on land is from the sky in the form of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>.\u00a0 <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">I<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">n many places<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">is being extracted faster than it is being replenished<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW169962721\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW169962721\">. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">When<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">is extracted faster than<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">it is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">recharge<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">d<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">levels\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">and<\/span><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">potentiometric surfaces<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">decline<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">discharge<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">areas <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">diminish\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">or dry up completely.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>Regional pumping-induced groundwater decline is known as <\/span><b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1772\">groundwater mining<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> or groundwater overdraft. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1772\">Groundwater mining<\/a> is a serious situation and can lead to dry wells, reduced spring and stream flow, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a>. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW8772542\">G<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">roundwater mining<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">is happening<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\"> is places <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">w<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">here<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0more water is\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">extract<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">ed<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0by pumping\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">than\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">is being\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">replenish<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">ed<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0by<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">, and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">the<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">water table <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">is continual<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">l<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">y<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">\u00a0lower<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">ed<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW8772542\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW8772542\">. In these situations, groundwater must be viewed as a ore body and in its depletion, the possibility of producing ghost towns.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4550\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4550\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Science-Today-Groundwater-Youtube-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-751\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-Today-Groundwater-Youtube-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4550\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">In many places, water <\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun AdvancedProofingIssueV2 SCXW193209130 BCX0\">actually helps<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0hold up<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW193209130 BCX0\">an<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">aquifer<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u2019s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">skeleton\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">by the water pressure exerted on the grains in an<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">aquifer.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"> This pressure is called <strong>pore <\/strong><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><strong>pressure<\/strong> and comes from the weight of overlying water. If pore pressure decreases because of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1772\">groundwater mining<\/a>, the<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">aquifer<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">can compact, causing the surface of the ground to sink.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">Areas especially susceptible to this effect are<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">aquifers<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">made of unconsolidated<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">Unconsolidated<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">with multiple layers of clay and other fine-grained material are at higher risk because\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">when water is<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0drained,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">clay\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">compact<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\"> considerably<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW193209130 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">36<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">;<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">37<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW193209130 BCX0\">].<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW193209130 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3452\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3452\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/100_4902-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-3452 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/100_4902-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"The author stands in a large ditch-like\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3452\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Example of an earth fissure in Cedar City.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><b><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">Subsidence<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1772\">groundwater mining<\/a> has been documented in southwestern Utah, notably Cedar Valley, Iron County, Utah. \u00a0Groundwater levels have declined more than 100 feet in certain parts of Cedar Valley, causing earth fissures and measurable amounts of land <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3453\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3453\" style=\"width: 174px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/land-subsidence-poland-calif.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-753\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/land-subsidence-poland-calif.jpg\" alt=\"Eivdence of land subsidence from pumping of groundwater shown by dates on a pole\" width=\"174\" height=\"435\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3453\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Evidence of land subsidence from pumping of groundwater shown by dates on a pole<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This photo shows documentation of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> from pumping of groundwater for irrigation in the Central Valley in California. The pole shows <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> from groundwater pumping over a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1244\">period<\/a> of time.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-82\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-82\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"82\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.7 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4543\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4543\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.6-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-754\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.6-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4543\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.6 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><b>11.7 Water Contamination and Remediation<\/b><\/h2>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">Water can be contaminated by <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW125219294 BCX0\">natural features like<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1765\">mineral<\/a>-rich geologic<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">formations\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">and by <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">human <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">activities <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">such as a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">griculture, industrial <\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">operations, landfills, animal operations, and <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">sewage treatment processes, among many other things<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW125219294 BCX0\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">As water runs over the land or<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">infiltrates<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">into the ground, it dissolves material left behind by these potential contaminant sources. There are three major groups of contamination:\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">organic and <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">inorganic chemicals<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">and biological agents. Small<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediments<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">that cloud<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">water<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">causing turbidity<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW125219294 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0is also an issue with some wells, but it is not considered contamination. The risks and<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0type of<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">remediation<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW125219294 BCX0\">for a contaminant depends on the type of chemicals present.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW125219294 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">Contamination occurs as point<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">source and non<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">point<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW16454995\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW16454995\">source pollution.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><b>Point source<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> pollution can be attributed to a single, definable source, while<\/span><b> nonpoint source <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">pollution is from multiple dispersed sources. Point sources include waste disposal sites, storage tanks, sewage treatment plants, and chemical spills. Nonpoint sources are dispersed and indiscreet, where the whole of the contribution of pollutants is harmful, but the individual components do not have harmful concentrations of pollutants. \u00a0A good example of nonpoint pollution is residential areas, where lawn fertilizer on one person\u2019s yard may not contribute much pollution to the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a>, but the combined effect of many residents using fertilizer can lead to significant nonpoint pollution. \u00a0Other nonpoint sources include nutrients (nitrate and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_975\">phosphate<\/a>), herbicides, pesticides contributed by farming, nitrate contributed by animal operations, and nitrate contributed by septic systems. \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Organic chemicals<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0are common pollutants. They consist of strands and rings of carbon atoms, usually connected by covalent <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1781\">bonds<\/a>. Other types of atoms, like chlorine, and molecules, like hydroxide (OH<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">-<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">), are attached to the strands and rings. The number and arrangement of atoms will decide how the chemical behaves in the environment, its danger to humans or ecosystems, and where the chemical ends up in the environment. The different arrangements of carbon allow for tens of thousands of organic chemicals, many of which have never been studied for negative effects on human health or the environment. \u00a0Common organic pollutants are herbicides and pesticides, pharmaceuticals, fuel, and industrial solvents and cleansers. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Organic chemicals include surfactants<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW79227683\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\">\u00a0such as<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW79227683\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW79227683\">cleaning agents<\/span><\/span>\u00a0and synthetic hormones associated with pharmaceuticals, which can act as endocrine disruptors. Endocrine disruptors mimic hormones, and can cause long-term effects in developing sexual reproduction systems in developing animals. Only very small quantities of endocrine disruptors are needed to cause significant changes in animal populations.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">An example of organic chemical contamination is the Love Canal, Niagara Falls, New York. From 1942 to 1952, the Hooker Chemical Company disposed of over <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW131021485\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\">21,337 mt (<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\">21,000 t<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW131021485\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW131021485\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span> of chemical waste, including chlorinated hydrocarbons, into a canal and covered it with a thin layer of clay. \u00a0Chlorinated hydrocarbons are a large group of organic chemicals that have chlorine functional groups, most of which are toxic and carcinogenic to humans. The company sold the land to the New York School Board, who developed it into a neighborhood. After residents began to suffer from serious health ailments and pools of oily fluid started rising into residents\u2019 basements, the neighborhood had to be evacuated. \u00a0This site became a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency <\/span><b>Superfund site<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, a site with federal funding and oversight to ensure its cleanup. \u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Inorganic chemicals<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0are another set of chemical pollutants. They can contain carbon atoms, but not in long strands or links. Inorganic contaminants include chloride, arsenic, and nitrate (NO<\/span><sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">3<\/span><\/sub><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). \u00a0Nutrients can be from geologic material, like phosphorous-rich rock, but are most often sourced from fertilizer and animal and human waste. \u00a0Untreated sewage and agricultural runoff contain concentrates of nitrogen and phosphorus which are essential for the growth of microorganisms. Nutrients like nitrate and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_975\">phosphate<\/a> in surface water can promote growth of microbes, like blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), which in turn use oxygen and create toxins (microcystins and anatoxins) in lakes <span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW72694573\">[<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW72694573\">38<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW72694573\">]<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. This process is known as eutrophication.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Metals are common inorganic contaminants. Lead, mercury, and arsenic are some of the more problematic inorganic groundwater contaminants. \u00a0Bangladesh has a well documented case of arsenic contamination from natural geologic material dissolving into the groundwater. <span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">Acid<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">mine drainage<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">can also cause significant inorganic contamination<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">(<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">ee <\/span><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/16-energy-and-mineral-resources\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\">Chap<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\">ter\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\">16<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW94984786\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW94984786\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Salt, typically sodium chloride, is a common inorganic contaminant. \u00a0It can be introduced into groundwater from natural sources, such as evaporite deposits like the Arapien Shale of Utah, or from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_764\">anthropogenic<\/a> sources like the salts applied to roads in the winter to keep ice from forming. \u00a0Salt contamination can also occur <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW153366638 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">near ocean coasts\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">from saltwater intru<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW153366638 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">ding into the <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">cones of depression around fresh<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">pumping<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW153366638 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">, <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW153366638 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">inducing the encroachment of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW153366638 BCX0\">saltwater into the freshwater body.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW14358776\">Biological agents are\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">a<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">nother common<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">contaminant<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0which includes harmful bacteria and viruses. A common bacteria contaminant is<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><em>Escherichia coli<\/em> (<em>E. coli<\/em>)<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">. Generally, harmful bacteria are not present in<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">groundwater<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">unless the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">groundwater<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">source <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">is closely connected with a contaminated surface source, such as a septic<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart BCX0 SCXW14358776\">.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">Karst<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">landforms created from\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">dissolved<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">limestone<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">i<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">s especially susceptible to this form of contamination<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0because water moves relatively quickly through the<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\"> conduits o<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">f dissolved<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">limestone<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">Bacteria can also be used for<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">remediation<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW14358776\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW14358776\">.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/water.usgs.gov\/edu\/groundwater-contaminants.html\"><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Table. Groundwater contaminants.<\/span><\/i><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Remediation<\/strong> is the act of cleaning contamination. <span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">Hydrologists use<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">\u00a0three\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">types<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">\u00a0of remediation:\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">b<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW244500733\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">iological, chemical, and physical.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW244500733\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Biological remediation uses specific strains of bacteria to break down a contaminant into safer chemicals. \u00a0This type of remediation is usually used on organic chemicals, but also works on reducing or oxidizing inorganic chemicals like nitrate. Phytoremediation is a type of bioremediation that uses plants to absorb the chemicals over time.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Chemical remediation uses chemicals to remove the contaminant or make it less harmful. \u00a0One example is to use a reactive barrier, a permeable wall in the ground or at a discharge point that chemically reacts with contaminants in the water. Reactive barriers made of limestone can increase the pH of acid mine drainage, making the water less acidic and more basic, which removes dissolved contaminants by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a> into solid form.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Physical remediation consists of removing the contaminated water and either treating it with filtration<span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">, called<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">\u00a0pump<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">and<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">-<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange BCX0 SCXW260675278\"><span class=\"TextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun BCX0 SCXW260675278\">treat,<\/span><\/span><\/span> or disposing of it. \u00a0All of these options are technically complex, expensive, and difficult, with physical remediation typically being the most costly.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-83\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-83\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"83\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"11.8 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4544\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4544\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.7-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Youtube.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-755\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.7-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Youtube-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4544\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.7 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><b>11.8 Karst<\/b><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3454\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3454\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Karst-Towers-in-China.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-756 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Karst-Towers-in-China-300x205.jpg\" alt=\"Steep rock towers left as remnants of limestone layers dissolved away by acidic rainwater.\" width=\"300\" height=\"205\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3454\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Steep karst towers in China left as remnants as limestone is dissolved away by acidic rain and groundwater.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><strong>Karst<\/strong> refers to landscapes and hydrologic features created\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun CommentStart SCXW177943039 BCX0\">by\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">the\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">dissolving<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">limestone. Karst can be<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0found anywhere<\/span><\/span> <span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">there is<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">limestone<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">and other soluble subterranean substances like salt deposits.<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">Dissol<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">ving<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextDeletion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">of <\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">limestone<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW177943039 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">creates features like sinkholes, caverns, disappearing<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">streams, and\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW177943039 BCX0\">towers.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW177943039 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3455\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3455\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Sinkholes-in-Kaibab-Ls-from-solution-of-salt.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-757 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sinkholes-in-Kaibab-Ls-from-solution-of-salt-300x204.jpg\" alt=\"Sinkholes of the McCauley Sink in Northern Arizona, produced by collapse of Kaibab Limestone into caverns caused by solution of underlying salt deposits\" width=\"300\" height=\"204\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3455\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sinkholes of the McCauley Sink in Northern Arizona, produced by collapse of Kaibab Limestone into caverns caused by solution of underlying salt deposits .<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Dissolving of underlying salt deposits has caused sinkholes to form in the Kaibab Limestone on the Colorado Plateau in Arizona.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3456\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3456\" style=\"width: 439px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Sinkhole.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-758\" style=\"font-weight: bold; background-color: transparent; text-align: inherit;\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sinkhole-300x196.jpg\" alt=\"Sinkhole that appeared in Florida in the front yard of a home.\" width=\"439\" height=\"288\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3456\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This sinkhole from collapse of surface into a underground cavern appeared in the front yard of this home in Florida.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TrackChangeTextInsertion TrackedChange SCXW56751174 BCX0\"><span class=\"TextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\">Collapse of the surface into an underground cavern caused this s<\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\">inkhole <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW56751174 BCX0\">in the front yard of a home in Florida.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW56751174 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">CO<sub><span class=\"NormalTextRun Superscript SCXW178914480 BCX0\" data-fontsize=\"11\">2<\/span><\/sub>\u00a0in the\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0dissolves readily in the water droplets that form clouds\u00a0from which\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>\u00a0comes in the form of rain and snow. This\u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1785\">precipitation<\/a>\u00a0is slightly acidic with\u00a0carbonic acid.<span class=\"EOP SCXW178914480 BCX0\" data-ccp-props=\"{&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:259}\">\u00a0<\/span>Karst<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">forms when<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">carbonic acid <\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\" data-contrast=\"auto\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">dissolves<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">calcite<\/a><\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">(calcium<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_969\">carbonate<\/a>) in<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW178914480 BCX0\">limestone.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>H<sub>2<\/sub>O + CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0= H<sub>2<\/sub>CO<sub>3<\/sub><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Water + Carbon Dioxide Gas equals Carbonic Acid in Water<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>CaCO<sub>3<\/sub> + H<sub>2<\/sub>CO<sub>3<\/sub>\u00a0= Ca<sup>2+<\/sup>+ 2HCO<sub>3<\/sub> <sup>-1<\/sup><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Solid <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">Calcite<\/a> + Carbonic Acid in Water Dissolved equals Calcium Ion + Dissolved Bicarbonate Ion<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3457\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3457\" style=\"width: 385px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1024px-Dead_trees_at_Mammoth_Hot_Springs.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-759\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1024px-Dead_trees_at_Mammoth_Hot_Springs-300x198.jpg\" alt=\"Calcium carbonate deposited at Mammoth hot springs encapsulates trees.\" width=\"385\" height=\"255\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3457\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mammoth hot springs, Yellowstone National Park.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">After the slightly acidic water dissolves the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">calcite<\/a>, changes in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1767\">temperature<\/a> or gas content in the water can cause the water to redeposit the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_970\">calcite<\/a> in a different place as tufa (travertine), often deposited by a spring<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> or in a cave. \u00a0Speleothems are secondary deposits, typically made of travertine, deposited in a cave<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. \u00a0Travertine speleothems form by water dripping through cracks and dissolved openings in caves and evaporating, leaving behind the travertine deposits. \u00a0Speleothems commonly occur in the form of stalactites, when extending from the ceiling, and stalagmites, when standing up from the floor.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3458\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3458\" style=\"width: 490px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/640px-Labeled_speleothems.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-760\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/640px-Labeled_speleothems-300x214.jpg\" alt=\"Cave deposits hanging and protruding from the base of a cave.\" width=\"490\" height=\"350\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3458\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Varieties of speleotherms.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3459\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3459\" style=\"width: 472px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Disappearing-stream.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-761\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Disappearing-stream-300x224.jpg\" alt=\"Stream disappears into subterranean cavern system.\" width=\"472\" height=\"352\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3459\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This stream disappears into a subterranean cavern system to re-emerge a few hundred yards downstream.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Surface water enters the karst <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> through sinkholes, losing streams, and disappearing streams. \u00a0Changes in base level can cause rivers running over limestone to dissolve the limestone and sink into the ground. \u00a0As the water continues to dissolve its way through the limestone, it can leave behind intricate networks of caves and narrow passages. \u00a0Often dissolution will follow and expand <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_986\">fractures<\/a> in the limestone. \u00a0Water exits the karst <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> as springs and rises. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In mountainous <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1764\">terrane<\/a>, dissolution can extend all the way through the vertical profile of the mountain, with caverns dropping thousands of feet.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-84\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-84\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"84\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Chapter 11 Review\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4545\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4545\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/11.8-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-762\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/11.8-Did-I-Get-It-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4545\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 11.8 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Water is essential for all living things. It continuously cycles through the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1745\">atmosphere<\/a>, over land, and through the ground. In much of the United States and other countries, water is managed through a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> of regional laws and regulations and distributed on paper in a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">system<\/a> collectively known as \u201cwater rights\u201d. Surface water follows a watershed, which is separate from other areas by its divides (highest ridges). Groundwater exists in the pores within rocks and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a>.\u00a0 It moves predominantly due to pressure and gravitational gradients through the rock. Human and natural causes can make water unsuitable for consumption.\u00a0 There are different ways to deal with this contamination. Karst is when limestone is dissolved by water, forming caves and sinkholes.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this Chapter.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-85\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-85\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"85\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"12.1 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4547\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4547\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2022\/02\/Ch.11-Review-QR-Code.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-763\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.11-Review-QR-Code-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4547\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the review quiz for Chapter 11 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><b>References<\/b><\/h2>\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\">\n<ol>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Brush, L.M., Jr, 1961, Drainage basins, channels, and flow characteristics of selected streams in central Pennsylvania: pubs.er.usgs.gov.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Charlton, R., 2007, Fundamentals of fluvial geomorphology: Taylor &amp; Francis.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Cirrus Ecological <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1783\">Solutions<\/a>, 2009, Jordan River TMDL: Utah State Division of Water Quality.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Earle, S., 2015, Physical geology OER textbook: BC Campus OpenEd.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">EPA, 2009, Water on Tap-What You Need to Know: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Fagan, B., 2012, Elixir: A history of water and humankind: Bloomsbury Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Fairbridge, R.W., 1968, Yazoo rivers or streams, <i>in<\/i> Geomorphology: Springer Berlin Heidelberg Encyclopedia of Earth Science, p. 1238\u20131239.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Freeze, A.R., and Cherry, J.A., 1979, Groundwater: Prentice Hall.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Galloway, D., Jones, D.R., and Ingebritsen, S.E., 1999, Land <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1182.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Galloway, W.E., Whiteaker, T.L., and Ganey-Curry, P., 2011, History of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_488\">Cenozoic<\/a> North American drainage basin evolution, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1756\">sediment<\/a> yield, and accumulation in the Gulf of Mexico <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_508\">basin<\/a>: <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1743\">Geosphere<\/a>, v. 7, no. 4, p. 938\u2013973.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Gilbert, G.K., 1890, Lake Bonneville: United States Geological Survey, 438 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Gleick, P.H., 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World\u2019s Fresh Water Resources: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hadley, G., 1735, Concerning the cause of the general trade-winds: By Geo. Hadley, Esq; FRS: Philosophical Transactions, v. 39, no. 436\u2013444, p. 58\u201362.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Halvorson, S.F., and James Steenburgh, W., 1999, Climatology of lake-effect snowstorms of the Great Salt Lake: University of Utah.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Heath, R.C., 1983, Basic ground-water hydrology: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2220, 91 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hobbs, W.H., and Fisk, H.N., 1947, Geological Investigation of the Alluvial Valley of the Lower Mississippi River: JSTOR.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Knudsen, T., Inkenbrandt, P., Lund, W., Lowe, M., and Bowman, S., 2014, Investigation of land <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> and earth fissures in Cedar Valley, Iron County, Utah: Utah Geological Survey Special Study 150.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Lorenz, E.N., 1955, Available potential energy and the maintenance of the general circulation: Tell\u2019Us, v. 7, no. 2, p. 157\u2013167.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Marston, R.A., Mills, J.D., Wrazien, D.R., Bassett, B., and Splinter, D.K., 2005, Effects of Jackson lake dam on the Snake River and its floodplain, Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming, USA: Geomorphology, v. 71, no. 1\u20132, p. 79\u201398.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Maupin, M.A., Kenny, J.F., Hutson, S.S., Lovelace, J.K., Barber, N.L., and Linsey, K.S., 2014, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2010: US Geological Survey.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Myers, W.B., and Hamilton, W., 1964, The Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake of August 17, 1959: U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., v. 435, p. 51.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Oviatt, C.G., 2015, Chronology of Lake Bonneville, 30,000 to 10,000 yr B.P: Quat. Sci. Rev., v. 110, p. 166\u2013171.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Powell, J.W., 1879, Report on the lands of the arid region of the United States with a more detailed account of the land of Utah with maps: Monograph.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Reed, J.C., Love, D., and Pierce, K., 2003, Creation of the Teton landscape: a geologic chronicle of Jackson Hole and the Teton Range: pubs.er.usgs.gov.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Reese, R.S., 2014, Review of Aquifer Storage and Recovery in the Floridan Aquifer <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1742\">System<\/a> of Southern Florida:<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Schele, L., Miller, M.E., Kerr, J., Coe, M.D., and Sano, E.J., 1992, The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art: George Braziller Inc.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Seaber, P.R., Kapinos, F.P., and Knapp, G.L., 1987, Hydrologic unit maps:<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Solomon, S., 2011, Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization: Harper Perennial.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">T\u00f6rnqvist, T.E., Wallace, D.J., Storms, J.E.A., Wallinga, J., Van Dam, R.L., Blaauw, M., Derksen, M.S., Klerks, C.J.W., Meijneken, C., and Snijders, E.M.A., 2008, Mississippi Delta <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_511\">subsidence<\/a> primarily caused by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_1758\">compaction<\/a> of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_927_490\">Holocene<\/a> strata: Nat. Geosci., v. 1, no. 3, p. 173\u2013176.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Turner, R.E., and Rabalais, N.N., 1991, Changes in Mississippi River water quality this century: Bioscience, v. 41, no. 3, p. 140\u2013147.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">United States Geological Survey, 1967, The Amazon: Measuring a Mighty River: United States Geological Survey O-245-247.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2014, Cyanobacteria\/Cyanotoxins<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">U.S. Geological Survey, 2012, Snowmelt - The Water Cycle, from USGS Water-Science School<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Utah\/Nevada Draft Snake Valley Agreement, 2013<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: 'courier new', courier, monospace;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2450\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2450\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1517\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1517\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Component of the gravitational force which holds material on a slope.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1519\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1519\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Slope angle where shear forces and normal forces are equal.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1988\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1988\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2252\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2252\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1976\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1976\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_479\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_479\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. All generated QR Codes are 100% free and can be used for whatever you want. This includes all commercial purposes. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1243\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1243\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A very fine-grained rock with very thin layering (fissile).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_488\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_488\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Krishnavedala (Own work) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/deed.en\">CC0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AHalf_times.svg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_491\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_491\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Tim Bertelink (Own work) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AHadean.png\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1257\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1257\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Limestone made of primarily fine-grained calcite mud. Microscopic fossils are commonly present.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1242\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1242\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Extremely thin bedding in mudstones, a characteristic of shale.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1261\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1261\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Discernible layers of rock, typically from a sedimentary rock.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1262\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1262\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A specific layer of rock with identifiable properties.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1270\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1270\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A specific layer of rock formed by flowing fluid, either in the lowest part of the lower flow regime or lower part of the upper flow regime.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_766\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_766\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Matt Affolter<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1653\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1653\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Erosional rock face caused by sand abrasion.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1989\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1989\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1730\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1730\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Potentially extractible and valuable material, but unproven.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1992\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1992\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1271\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1271\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Subtle ridges formed in the upper flow regime on top of plane beds in the direction of flow.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1277\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1277\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Sedimentary layering disturbed by movement of organisms.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_755\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_755\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. All generated QR Codes are 100% free and can be used for whatever you want. This includes all commercial purposes. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2444\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2444\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_767\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_767\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Kraaiennest (Own work) [<a href=\"http:\/\/www.gnu.org\/copyleft\/fdl.html\">GFDL<\/a> or <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0\">CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3ADeep_water_wave.gif\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1654\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1654\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rock with abraded surfaces formed in deserts.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1669\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1669\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Glaciers that form in cool or mountainous areas.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1755\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1755\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Oxidation that occurs in sulfide deposits which can concentrate valuable elements like copper.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1245\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1245\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock made primarily of clay.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_759\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_759\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Brocken Inaglory (Own work) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> or <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gnu.org\/copyleft\/fdl.html\">GFDL<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3ADead_trees_at_Mammoth_Hot_Springs.jpg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_748\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_748\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Peter Kapitola (Own work) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5\">CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3ADarcy's_Law.png\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2399\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2399\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2400\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2400\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_490\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_490\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>by Robert A. Rohde<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2401\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2401\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1535\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1535\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Topographic prominence which sheds water into a specific drainage basin.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1990\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1990\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1779\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1779\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1963\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1963\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2197\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2197\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1226\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1226\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Upper layer of soil, made mainly out of organic material.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_4823\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_4823\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1667\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1667\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The process that turns non-desert land into desert.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1733\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1733\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Large surface mine with opening carved into the ground.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2417\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2417\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1679\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1679\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Groves scratched in rock by glacial action.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1722\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1722\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Data which is out of the ordinary and does not fit previous trends.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_2044\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_2044\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1269\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1269\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A specific type of sedimentary structure (ripples, plane beds, etc.) linked to a specific flow regime.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1702\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1702\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Lake that forms next to a glacier because of crustal loading.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_927_1263\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_927_1263\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The study of rock layers and their relationships to each other within a specific area.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":291,"menu_order":15,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[49],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-927","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":19,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/927","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/291"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/927\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1804,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/927\/revisions\/1804"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/19"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/927\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=927"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=927"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=927"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=927"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}