{"id":65,"date":"2021-09-16T19:39:08","date_gmt":"2021-09-16T19:39:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/1-understanding-science\/"},"modified":"2022-05-18T14:11:26","modified_gmt":"2022-05-18T14:11:26","slug":"1-understanding-science","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/1-understanding-science\/","title":{"raw":"1 Understanding Science","rendered":"1 Understanding Science"},"content":{"raw":"[caption id=\"attachment_1683\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"3648\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/DT1-2-scaled.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img class=\"wp-image-1683 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/09\/DT1-2-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"It is a steep rock jutting out of the countryside.\" width=\"3648\" height=\"2736\"><\/a> Devils Tower, Wyoming.[\/caption]\n<h1><strong>1 Understanding Science<\/strong><\/h1>\n<b>STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES<\/b>\n\n<b>At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:<\/b>\n<ul>\n \t<li>Contrast [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0versus [pb_glossary id=\"1723\"]subjective[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0observations, and [pb_glossary id=\"1724\"]quantitative[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0versus [pb_glossary id=\"1725\"]qualitative[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0observations<\/li>\n \t<li>Identify a [pb_glossary id=\"1727\"]pseudoscience[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0based on its lack of falsifiability<\/li>\n \t<li>Contrast the methods used by Aristotle and Galileo to describe the natural environment<\/li>\n \t<li>Explain the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0and apply it to a problem or question<\/li>\n \t<li>Describe the foundations of modern geology, such as the [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]principle of uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary]<\/li>\n \t<li>Contrast [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0with [pb_glossary id=\"1737\"]catastrophism[\/pb_glossary]<\/li>\n \t<li>Explain why studying geology is important<\/li>\n \t<li>Identify how Earth materials are transformed by [pb_glossary id=\"1749\"]rock cycle[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0processes<\/li>\n \t<li>Describe the steps involved in a reputable scientific study<\/li>\n \t<li>Explain rhetorical arguments used by science deniers<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1.1 <\/span><b>What is Science?<\/b><\/h2>\n[caption id=\"attachment_1627\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/YS1-1.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img class=\"wp-image-21 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The waterfall is in a valley\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a> This is Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone in Yellowstone National Park. An objective statement about this would be: \"The picture is of a waterfall.\" A subjective statement would be: \"The picture is beautiful.\" or \"The waterfall is there because of erosion.\"[\/caption]\n\nScientists seek to understand the fundamental principles that explain natural patterns and processes. Science is more than just a body of knowledge, science provides a means to evaluate and create new knowledge without bias. Scientists use [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary] evidence over [pb_glossary id=\"1723\"]subjective[\/pb_glossary] evidence, to reach sound and logical conclusions.\n\nAn [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1729\"]observation[\/pb_glossary] is without personal bias and the same by all individuals. Humans are biased by nature, so they cannot be completely [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary]; the goal is to be as unbiased as possible. A [pb_glossary id=\"1723\"]subjective[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1729\"]observation[\/pb_glossary] is based on a person\u2019s feelings and beliefs and is unique to that individual.\n\nAnother way scientists avoid bias is by using [pb_glossary id=\"1724\"]quantitative[\/pb_glossary] over [pb_glossary id=\"1725\"]qualitative[\/pb_glossary] measurements whenever possible. A [pb_glossary id=\"1724\"]quantitative[\/pb_glossary] measurement is expressed with a specific numerical value. [pb_glossary id=\"1725\"]Qualitative[\/pb_glossary] observations are general or relative descriptions. For example, describing a rock as red or heavy is a [pb_glossary id=\"1725\"]qualitative[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1729\"]observation[\/pb_glossary]. Determining a rock\u2019s color by measuring wavelengths of reflected light or its density by measuring the proportions of [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] it contains is [pb_glossary id=\"1724\"]quantitative[\/pb_glossary]. Numerical values are more precise than general descriptions, and they can be analyzed using statistical calculations. This is why [pb_glossary id=\"1724\"]quantitative[\/pb_glossary] measurements are much more useful to scientists than [pb_glossary id=\"1725\"]qualitative[\/pb_glossary] observations.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2460\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/MSH_Alex-2-scaled.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img class=\"wp-image-2460 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MSH_Alex-2-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"A person is looking into the canyon.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> Canyons like this, carved in the deposit left by the May 18th, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens is sometimes used by purveyors of pseudoscience as evidence for the Earth being very young. In reality, the unconsolidated and unlithified volcanic deposit is carved much more easily than other canyons like the Grand Canyon.[\/caption]\n\nEstablishing truth in science is difficult because all scientific claims are [pb_glossary id=\"1726\"]falsifiable[\/pb_glossary], which means any initial [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] may be tested and proven false. Only after exhaustively eliminating false results, competing ideas, and possible variations does a [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] become regarded as a reliable scientific [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary]. This meticulous scrutiny reveals weaknesses or flaws in a [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] and is the strength that supports all scientific ideas and procedures. In fact, proving current ideas are wrong has been the [pb_glossary id=\"2190\"]driving force[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0behind many scientific careers.\n\nFalsifiability separates science from [pb_glossary id=\"1727\"]pseudoscience[\/pb_glossary]. Scientists are wary of explanations of natural phenomena that discourage or avoid falsifiability. An explanation that cannot be tested or does not meet scientific standards is not considered science, but [pb_glossary id=\"1727\"]pseudoscience[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"1727\"]Pseudoscience[\/pb_glossary] is a collection of ideas that may appear scientific but does not use the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary]. Astrology is an example of [pb_glossary id=\"1727\"]pseudoscience[\/pb_glossary]. It is a belief system that attributes the movement of celestial bodies to influencing human behavior. Astrologers rely on celestial observations, but their conclusions are not based on experimental evidence and their statements are not [pb_glossary id=\"1726\"]falsifiable[\/pb_glossary]. This is not to be confused with astronomy which is the scientific study of celestial bodies and the cosmos<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span>\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2461\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/DSC00761-2-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-2461 size-medium\" title=\"Source: By Matt Affolter\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DSC00761-2-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Many people are standing around and talking.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> Geologists share information by publishing, attending conferences, and even going on field trips, such as this trip to western Utah by the Utah Geological Association in 2009.[\/caption]\n\nScience is also a social process. Scientists share their ideas with peers at conferences, seeking guidance and feedback. Research papers and data submitted for publication are rigorously reviewed by qualified peers, scientists who are experts in the same field. The scientific review process aims to weed out misinformation, invalid research results, and wild speculation. Thus, it is slow, cautious, and conservative. Scientists tend to wait until a [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] is supported by overwhelming amount of evidence from many independent researchers before accepting it as scientific [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary].\n\n&nbsp;\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"1\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_3715\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-24 size-thumbnail\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.1 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><strong>1.2 The Scientific Method<\/strong><\/h2>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2462\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/The_Scientific_Method_as_an_Ongoing_Process.svg_-2.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-25 size-medium\" title=\"Source: By ArchonMagnus (Own work) [<a href=&quot;http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0&quot;>CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>], <a href=&quot;https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AThe_Scientific_Method_as_an_Ongoing_Process.svg&quot;>via Wikimedia Commons<\/a>\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/The_Scientific_Method_as_an_Ongoing_Process.svg_-2-300x247.png\" alt=\"The diagram is cyclical.\" width=\"300\" height=\"247\"><\/a> Diagram of the cyclical nature of the scientific method.[\/caption]<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Modern science is based on the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary], a procedure that follows these steps:<\/span>\n<ul>\n \t<li>Formulate a question or observe a problem<\/li>\n \t<li>Apply [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary] experimentation and [pb_glossary id=\"1729\"]observation[\/pb_glossary]<\/li>\n \t<li>Analyze collected data and Interpret results<\/li>\n \t<li>Devise an evidence-based [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary]<\/li>\n \t<li>Submit findings to [pb_glossary id=\"1732\"]peer review[\/pb_glossary] and\/or publication<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nThis has a long history in human thought but was first fully formed by Ibn al-Haytham over 1,000 years ago. At the forefront of the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary] are conclusions based on [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary] evidence, not opinion or hearsay<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. <\/span>\n<h4><strong>Step One: Observation, Problem, or Research Question<\/strong><\/h4>\nThe procedure begins with identifying a problem or research question, such as a geological phenomenon that is not well explained in the scientific community\u2019s collective knowledge. This step usually involves reviewing the scientific literature to understand previous studies that may be related to the question.\n<h4><strong>Step Two: Hypothesis<\/strong><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2463\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-26 size-medium\" title=\"Source: By Eadweard Muybridge, public domain.\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1-300x187.jpg\" alt=\"There are 12 images of the horse, at least one has the legs off the ground.\" width=\"300\" height=\"187\"><\/a> A famous hypothesis: Leland Stanford wanted to know if a horse lifted all 4 legs off the ground during a gallop, since the legs are too fast for the human eye to perceive it. These series of photographs by Eadweard Muybridge proved the horse, in fact, does have all four legs off the ground during the gallop.[\/caption]\n\nOnce the problem or question is well defined, the scientist proposes a possible answer, a [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary], before conducting an [pb_glossary id=\"1731\"]experiment[\/pb_glossary] or field work. This [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] must be specific, [pb_glossary id=\"1726\"]falsifiable[\/pb_glossary], and should be based on other scientific work. Geologists often develop multiple working [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypotheses[\/pb_glossary] because they usually cannot impose strict experimental controls or have limited opportunities to visit a field location.\n<h4><strong>Step Three: Experiment and Hypothesis Revision<\/strong><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2464\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"199\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-27\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1-199x300.jpg\" alt=\"The setup is like an hourglass, and the black pitch sits in it\" width=\"199\" height=\"300\"><\/a> An experiment at the University of Queensland has been going since 1927. A petroleum product called pitch, which is highly viscous, drips out of a funnel about once per decade.[\/caption]\n\nThe next step is developing an [pb_glossary id=\"1731\"]experiment[\/pb_glossary] that either supports or refutes the [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary]. Many people mistakenly think experiments are only done in a lab; however, an [pb_glossary id=\"1731\"]experiment[\/pb_glossary] can consist of observing natural processes in the field. Regardless of what form an [pb_glossary id=\"1731\"]experiment[\/pb_glossary] takes, it always includes the systematic gathering of [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary] data. This data is interpreted to determine whether it contradicts or supports the [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary], which may be revised and tested again. When a [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] holds up under experimentation, it is ready to be shared with other experts in the field.\n<h4><strong>Step Four: Peer Review, Publication, and Replication<\/strong><\/h4>\nScientists share the results of their research by publishing articles in scientific journals, such as <em>Science<\/em> and <em>Nature<\/em>. Reputable journals and publishing houses will not publish an experimental study until they have determined its methods are scientifically rigorous and the conclusions are supported by evidence. Before an article is published, it undergoes a rigorous [pb_glossary id=\"1732\"]peer review[\/pb_glossary] by scientific experts who scrutinize the methods, results, and discussion. Once an article is published, other scientists may attempt to replicate the results. This replication is necessary to confirm the reliability of the study\u2019s reported results. A [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] that seemed compelling in one study might be proven false in studies conducted by other scientists. New technology can be applied to published studies, which can aid in confirming or rejecting once-accepted ideas and\/or [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypotheses[\/pb_glossary].\n<h4><strong>Step Five: Theory Development<\/strong><\/h4>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2500\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"195\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30-2.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-28\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30-2.jpg\" alt=\"He is a male in a suit.\" width=\"195\" height=\"240\"><\/a> Wegener later in his life, ca. 1924-1930.[\/caption]\n\nIn casual conversation, the word <em>[pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary]<\/em> implies guesswork or speculation. In the language of science, an explanation or conclusion made in a <em>[pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary]<\/em> carries much more weight because it is supported by experimental verification and widely accepted by the scientific community. After a [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] has been repeatedly tested for falsifiability through documented and independent studies, it eventually becomes accepted as a scientific [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary].\n\nWhile a [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] provides a tentative explanation <em>before <\/em>an [pb_glossary id=\"1731\"]experiment[\/pb_glossary], a [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] is the best explanation <em>after <\/em>being confirmed by multiple independent experiments. Confirmation of a [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] may take years, or even longer. For example, the [pb_glossary id=\"1653\"]continental[\/pb_glossary] drift [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] first proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 was initially dismissed. After decades of additional evidence collection by other scientists using more advanced technology, Wegener\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary] was accepted and revised as the [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] of [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]plate tectonics[\/pb_glossary].\n\nThe [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] of evolution by natural selection is another example. Originating from the work of Charles Darwin in the mid-19th century, the [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] of evolution has withstood generations of scientific testing for falsifiability. While it has been updated and revised to accommodate knowledge gained by using modern technologies, the [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] of evolution continues to be supported by the latest evidence.\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"2\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_3714\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-29 size-thumbnail\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.2 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2>1.3 Early Scientific Thought<\/h2>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2466\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"229\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-30 size-medium\" title=\"Source: &quot;School of Athens&quot; by Raphael Date1509 Medium fresco\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1-229x300.jpg\" alt=\"The image is a likeness\" width=\"229\" height=\"300\"><\/a> Fresco by Raphael of Plato (left) and Aristotle (right).[\/caption]\n\nWestern scientific thought began in the ancient city of Athens, Greece. Athens was governed as a democracy, which encouraged individuals to think independently, at a time when most civilizations were ruled by monarchies or military conquerors. Foremost among the early philosopher\/scientists to use empirical thinking was Aristotle, born in 384 BCE. Empiricism emphasizes the value of evidence gained from experimentation and [pb_glossary id=\"1729\"]observation[\/pb_glossary]. Aristotle studied under Plato and tutored Alexander the Great. Alexander would later conquer the Persian Empire, and in the process spread Greek culture as far east as India.\n\nAristotle applied an empirical method of analysis called [pb_glossary id=\"1734\"]deductive reasoning[\/pb_glossary], which applies known principles of thought to establish new ideas or predict new outcomes. [pb_glossary id=\"1734\"]Deductive reasoning[\/pb_glossary] starts with generalized principles and logically extends them to new ideas or specific conclusions. If the initial principle is valid, then it is highly likely the conclusion is also valid. An example of [pb_glossary id=\"1734\"]deductive reasoning[\/pb_glossary] is if A=B, and B=C, then A=C. Another example is if all birds have feathers, and a sparrow is a bird, then a sparrow must also have feathers. The problem with [pb_glossary id=\"1734\"]deductive reasoning[\/pb_glossary] is if the initial principle is flawed, the conclusion will inherit that flaw. Here is an example of a flawed initial principle leading to the wrong conclusion; if all animals that fly are birds, and bats also fly, then bats must also be birds.\n\nThis type of empirical thinking contrasts with [pb_glossary id=\"1735\"]inductive reasoning[\/pb_glossary], which begins from new observations and attempts to discern underlying generalized principles. A conclusion made through [pb_glossary id=\"1735\"]inductive reasoning[\/pb_glossary] comes from analyzing measurable evidence, rather making a logical connection. For example, to determine whether bats are birds a scientist might list various characteristics observed in birds\u2013the presence of feathers, a toothless beak, hollow bones, lack of forelegs, and externally laid eggs. Next, the scientist would check whether bats share the same characteristics, and if they do not, draw the conclusion that bats are not birds.\n\nBoth types of reasoning are important in science because they emphasize the two most important aspects of science: [pb_glossary id=\"1729\"]observation[\/pb_glossary] and inference. Scientists test existing principles to see if they accurately infer or predict their observations. They also analyze new observations to determine if the inferred underlying principles still support them.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2467\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"193\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Avicenna-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-31 size-medium\" title=\"Source: \u2018Subtilties of Truth\u2019, 1271\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Avicenna-1-193x300.jpg\" alt=\"The drawing is black and white of a man\" width=\"193\" height=\"300\"><\/a> 1271 drawing of Avicenna (Ibn Sina). He is among the first to link\u00a0mountains to earthquakes and erosion.[\/caption]\n\nGreek culture was spread by Alexander and then absorbed by the Romans, who help further extend Greek knowledge into Europe through their vast infrastructure of roads, bridges, and aqueducts. After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE, scientific progress in Europe stalled. Scientific thinkers of medieval time had such high regard for Aristotle\u2019s wisdom and knowledge they faithfully followed his logical approach to understanding nature for centuries. By contrast, science in the Middle East flourished and grew between 800 and 1450 CE, along with culture and the arts.\n\nNear the end of the medieval [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]period[\/pb_glossary], empirical experimentation became more common in Europe. During the Renaissance, which lasted from the 14<sup>th<\/sup> through 17<sup>th<\/sup> centuries, artistic and scientific thought experienced a great awakening. European scholars began to criticize the traditional Aristotelian approach and by the end of the Renaissance [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]period[\/pb_glossary], empiricism was poised to become a key component of the scientific revolution that would arise in the 17<sup>th<\/sup> century.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2468\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-32 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Cosmographia, Bartolomeu Velho, 1568\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1-300x221.jpg\" alt=\"Earth is at the center.\" width=\"300\" height=\"221\"><\/a> Geocentric drawing by Bartolomeu Velho in 1568[\/caption]\n\nAn early example of how Renaissance scientists began to apply a modern empirical approach is their study of the [pb_glossary id=\"1253\"]solar system[\/pb_glossary]. In the second century, the Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy observed the Sun, Moon, and stars moving across the sky. Applying Aristotelian logic to his astronomical calculations, he deductively reasoned all celestial bodies orbited around the Earth, which was located at the center of the universe. Ptolemy was a highly regarded mathematician, and his mathematical calculations were widely accepted by the scientific community.\u00a0 The view of the cosmos with Earth at its center is called the geocentric model. This geocentric model persisted until the Renaissance [pb_glossary id=\"1244\"]period[\/pb_glossary], when some revolutionary thinkers challenged the centuries-old [pb_glossary id=\"1730\"]hypothesis[\/pb_glossary].\n\nBy contrast, early Renaissance scholars such as astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed an alternative explanation for the perceived movement of the Sun, Moon, and stars. Sometime between 1507 and 1515, he provided credible mathematical proof for a radically new model of the cosmos, one in which the Earth and other planets orbited around a centrally located Sun. After the invention of the telescope in 1608, scientists used their enhanced astronomical observations to support this heliocentric, Sun-centered, model.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2470\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"210\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Galileo_manuscript-1.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-33 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Letter by Galileo, 1609.\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Galileo_manuscript-1-210x300.png\" alt=\"This is a manuscript showing 4 moons of Jupiter.\" width=\"210\" height=\"300\"><\/a> Galileo's first mention of moons of Jupiter.[\/caption]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2469\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-34 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Nicolaus Copernicus' &quot;De revolutionibus orbium coelestium&quot; 1543\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1-300x275.jpg\" alt=\"The sun is in the center\" width=\"300\" height=\"275\"><\/a> Copernicus' heliocentric model[\/caption]\n\nTwo scientists, Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, are credited with jump-starting the scientific revolution. They accomplished this by building on Copernicus work and challenging long-established ideas about nature and science.\n\nJohannes Kepler (1571-1630) was a German mathematician and astronomer who expanded on the heliocentric model\u2014improving Copernicus\u2019 original calculations and describing planetary motion as elliptical paths. Galileo Galilei (1564 \u2013 1642) was an Italian astronomer who used the newly developed telescope to observe the four largest moons of Jupiter. This was the first piece of direct evidence to contradict the geocentric model, since moons orbiting Jupiter could not also be orbiting Earth.\n\nGalileo strongly supported the heliocentric model and attacked the geocentric model, arguing for a more scientific approach to determine the credibility of an idea. Because of this he found himself at odds with prevailing scientific views and the Catholic Church. In 1633 he was found guilty of heresy and placed under house arrest, where he would remain until his death in 1642.\n\nGalileo is regarded as the first modern scientist because he conducted experiments that would prove or disprove [pb_glossary id=\"1726\"]falsifiable[\/pb_glossary] ideas and based his conclusions on mathematical analysis of quantifiable evidence\u2014a radical departure from the deductive thinking of Greek philosophers such as Aristotle . His methods marked the beginning of a major shift in how scientists studied the natural world, with an increasing number of them relying on evidence and experimentation to form their [pb_glossary id=\"2590\"]hypotheses[\/pb_glossary]. It was during this revolutionary time that geologists such as James Hutton and Nicolas Steno also made great advances in their scientific fields of study.\n\n&nbsp;\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"3\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_3713\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-35 size-thumbnail\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.3 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2>1.4 Foundations of Modern Geology<\/h2>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2471\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"199\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Stenoshark-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-36 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Nicolas Steno's Elementorum myologi\u00e6 specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometrica : cui accedunt Canis Carchari\u00e6 dissectum caput, et dissectus piscis ex Canum genere, 1667\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Stenoshark-1-199x300.jpg\" alt=\"It shows a shark mouth and several teeth\" width=\"199\" height=\"300\"><\/a> Illustration by Steno showing a comparison between fossil and modern shark teeth.[\/caption]\n\nAs part of the scientific revolution in Europe, modern geologic principles developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. One major contributor was Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686), a Danish priest who studied anatomy and geology. Steno was the first to propose the Earth\u2019s surface could change over time. He suggested sedimentary rocks, such as [pb_glossary id=\"1912\"]sandstone[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1917\"]shale[\/pb_glossary], originally formed in horizontal layers with the oldest on the bottom and progressively younger layers on top.\n\nIn the 18th century, Scottish naturalist James Hutton (1726\u20131797) studied [pb_glossary id=\"2592\"]rivers[\/pb_glossary] and coastlines and compared the sediments they left behind to exposed [pb_glossary id=\"2593\"]sedimentary[\/pb_glossary] rock strata. He hypothesized the ancient rocks must have been formed by processes like those producing the features in the oceans and [pb_glossary id=\"2594\"]streams[\/pb_glossary]. Hutton also proposed the Earth was much older than previously thought. Modern geologic processes operate slowly. Hutton realized if these processes formed rocks, then the Earth must be very old, possibly hundreds of millions of years old.\n\nHutton\u2019s idea is called the [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]principle of uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary] and states that natural processes operate the same now as in the past, i.e. the laws of nature are uniform across space and time. Geologist often state \u201cthe present is the key to the past,\u201d meaning they can understand ancient rocks by studying modern geologic processes.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2472\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-37 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Cuvier, 1799\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1-300x230.jpg\" alt=\"It shows two views of each jaw.\" width=\"300\" height=\"230\"><\/a> Cuvier's comparison of modern elephant and mammoth jaw bones.[\/caption]\n\nPrior to the acceptance of [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary], scientists such as German geologist Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750-1817) and French anatomist Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) thought rocks and landforms were formed by great catastrophic events. Cuvier championed this view, known as [pb_glossary id=\"1737\"]catastrophism[\/pb_glossary], and stated, \u201cThe thread of operation is broken; nature has changed course, and none of the agents she employs today would have been sufficient to produce her former works.\u201d He meant processes that operate today did not operate in the past. Known as the father of [pb_glossary id=\"2595\"]vertebrate[\/pb_glossary] paleontology, Cuvier made significant contributions to the study of ancient life and taught at Paris\u2019s Museum of Natural History. Based on his study of large [pb_glossary id=\"2595\"]vertebrate[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]fossils[\/pb_glossary], he was the first to suggest species could go [pb_glossary id=\"755\"]extinct[\/pb_glossary]. However, he thought new species were introduced by special creation after catastrophic floods.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2492\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-38 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Charles Lyell, Elements of Geology (second American edition, 1857)\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1.jpg\" alt=\"It shows a rudimentary cross section\" width=\"300\" height=\"191\"><\/a> Inside cover\u00a0of Lyell's Elements of Geology[\/caption]\n\nHutton\u2019s ideas about [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary] and Earth\u2019s age were not well received by the scientific community of his time. His ideas were falling into obscurity when Charles Lyell, a British lawyer and geologist (1797-1875), wrote the <em>Principles of Geology <\/em>in the early 1830s and later, <em>[pb_glossary id=\"1778\"]Elements[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of Geology<\/em>. Lyell\u2019s books promoted Hutton\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]principle of uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary], his studies of rocks and the processes that formed them, and the idea that Earth was possibly over 300 million years old. Lyell and his three-volume <em>Principles of Geology<\/em> had a lasting influence on the geologic community and public at large, who eventually accepted [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary] and millionfold age for the Earth. The [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]principle of uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary] became so widely accepted, that geologists regarded catastrophic change as heresy. This made it harder for ideas like the sudden demise of the dinosaurs by asteroid impact to gain traction.\n\nA contemporary of Lyell, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) took <em>Principles of Geology<\/em> on his five-year trip on the HMS Beagle. Darwin used [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary] and deep geologic time to develop his initial ideas about evolution. Lyell was one of the first to publish a reference to Darwin\u2019s idea of evolution.\n\nThe next big advancement, and perhaps the largest in the history of geology, is the [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] of [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]plate tectonics[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2598\"]continental[\/pb_glossary] drift. Dogmatic acceptance of [pb_glossary id=\"1736\"]uniformitarianism[\/pb_glossary] inhibited the progress of this idea, mainly because of the permanency placed on the continents and their positions. Ironically, slow and steady movement of plates would fit well into a uniformitarianism model. However, much time passed and a great deal of scientific resistance had to be overcome before the idea took hold. This happened for several reasons. Firstly, the movement was so slow it was overlooked. Secondly, the best evidence was hidden under the ocean. Finally, the accepted theories were anchored by a large amount of inertia. Instead of being bias free, scientists resisted and ridiculed the emerging idea of [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]plate tectonics[\/pb_glossary]. This example of dogmatic thinking is still to this day a tarnish on the geoscience community.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2511\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"244\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992-2.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-39\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992-2-244x300.jpg\" alt=\"He is an older man in this 1992 image.\" width=\"244\" height=\"300\"><\/a> J. Tuzo Wilson[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]Plate tectonics[\/pb_glossary] is most commonly attributed to Alfred Wegener, the first scientist to compile a large data set supporting the idea of continents shifting places over time. He was mostly ignored and ridiculed for his ideas, but later workers like Marie Tharp, Bruce Heezen, Harry Hess, Laurence Morley, Frederick Vine, Drummond Matthews, Kiyoo Wadati, Hugo Benioff, Robert Coats, and J. Tuzo Wilson benefited from advances in sub-sea technologies. They discovered, described, and analyzed new features like the [pb_glossary id=\"1708\"]mid-ocean ridge[\/pb_glossary], alignment of earthquakes, and [pb_glossary id=\"1709\"]magnetic striping[\/pb_glossary]. Gradually these scientists introduced a paradigm shift that revolutionized geology into the science we know today.\n\n&nbsp;\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"4\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_3712\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-40 size-thumbnail\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.4 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1.5 The Study of Geology\n<\/span><\/h2>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2475\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"225\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/DSC00832-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-41 size-medium\" title=\"By Mason Chuang\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DSC00832-1-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"The students are on the red rock\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\"><\/a> A class looks at rocks in Zion National Park.[\/caption]\n\nGeologists apply the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary] to learn about Earth\u2019s materials and processes. Geology plays an important role in society; its principles are essential to locating, extracting, and managing [pb_glossary id=\"1738\"]natural resources[\/pb_glossary]; evaluating environmental impacts of using or extracting these resources; as well as understanding and mitigating the effects of natural hazards.\n\nGeology often applies information from physics and chemistry to the natural world, like understanding the physical forces in a [pb_glossary id=\"246\"]landslide[\/pb_glossary] or the chemical interaction between water and rocks. The term comes from the Greek word <em>geo<\/em>, meaning Earth, and <em>logos<\/em>, meaning to think or reckon with.\n<h3>1.5.1 Why Study Geology?<\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2476\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-42\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-1-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The dam has a large lake behind it\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> Hoover Dam provides hydroelectric energy and stores water for southern Nevada.[\/caption]\n\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Geology plays a key role in how we use [pb_glossary id=\"1738\"]natural resources[\/pb_glossary]\u2014any naturally occurring material that can be extracted from the Earth for economic gain. Our developed modern society, like all societies before it, is dependent on geologic resources. Geologists are involved in extracting [pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary], such as [pb_glossary id=\"1934\"]coal[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2415\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary]; metals such as copper, aluminum, and iron; and water resources in [pb_glossary id=\"2594\"]streams[\/pb_glossary] and underground [pb_glossary id=\"2419\"]reservoirs[\/pb_glossary] inside [pb_glossary id=\"250\"]soil[\/pb_glossary] and rocks. They can help conserve our planet\u2019s finite supply of [pb_glossary id=\"1739\"]nonrenewable[\/pb_glossary] resources, like [pb_glossary id=\"2415\"]petroleum[\/pb_glossary], which are fixed in quantity and depleted by consumption. Geologists can also help manage [pb_glossary id=\"1740\"]renewable[\/pb_glossary] resources that can be replaced or regenerated, such as solar or wind energy, and timber.<\/span>\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2477\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-43\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-1-300x188.jpg\" alt=\"The power plant has smoke coming from it\" width=\"300\" height=\"188\"><\/a> Coal power plant in Helper, Utah.[\/caption]\n\nResource extraction and usage impacts our environment, which can negatively affect human health. For example, burning [pb_glossary id=\"2414\"]fossil fuels[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0releases chemicals into the air that are unhealthy for humans, especially children. [pb_glossary id=\"2402\"]Mining[\/pb_glossary] activities can release toxic heavy metals, such as lead and mercury, into the [pb_glossary id=\"250\"]soil[\/pb_glossary] and waterways. Our choices will have an effect on Earth\u2019s environment for the foreseeable future. Understanding the remaining quantity, extractability, and renewability of geologic resources will help us better sustainably manage those resources.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2478\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Liquefaction_at_Niigata-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-44\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Liquefaction_at_Niigata-1-300x178.jpg\" alt=\"Buildings toppled from liquefaction during a 7.5 magnitude earthquake in Japan.\" width=\"300\" height=\"178\"><\/a> Buildings toppled from liquefaction during a 7.5 magnitude earthquake in Japan.[\/caption]\n\nGeologists also study natural hazards created by geologic processes. Natural hazards are phenomena that are potentially dangerous to human life or property. No place on Earth is completely free of natural hazards, so one of the best ways people can protect themselves is by understanding geology. Geology can teach people about the natural hazards in an area and how to prepare for them. Geologic hazards include [pb_glossary id=\"246\"]landslides[\/pb_glossary], earthquakes, [pb_glossary id=\"2272\"]tsunamis[\/pb_glossary], floods, [pb_glossary id=\"228\"]volcanic[\/pb_glossary] eruptions, and sea-level rise.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2479\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Crater_lake_oregon-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-45 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Crater_lake_oregon-1-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The mountain has a large hole in the center that is filled with the lake.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> Oregon's Crater Lake was formed about 7700 years ago after the eruption of Mount Mazama.[\/caption]\n\nFinally, geology is where other scientific disciplines intersect in the concept known as [pb_glossary id=\"1748\"]Earth System Science[\/pb_glossary]. In science, a [pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary] is a group of interactive objects and processes. [pb_glossary id=\"1748\"]Earth System Science[\/pb_glossary] views the entire planet as a combination of systems that interact with each other via complex relationships. This geology textbook provides an introduction to science in general and will often reference other scientific disciplines.\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"1748\"]Earth System Science[\/pb_glossary] includes five basic systems (or spheres), the [pb_glossary id=\"1743\"]Geosphere[\/pb_glossary] (the solid body of the Earth), the [pb_glossary id=\"1745\"]Atmosphere[\/pb_glossary] (the gas envelope surrounding the Earth), the [pb_glossary id=\"1744\"]Hydrosphere[\/pb_glossary] (water in all its forms at and near the surface of the Earth), the [pb_glossary id=\"1746\"]Cryosphere[\/pb_glossary] (frozen water part of Earth), and the [pb_glossary id=\"1747\"]Biosphere[\/pb_glossary] (life on Earth in all its forms and interactions, including humankind).\n\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Rather than viewing geology as an isolated [pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary], earth [pb_glossary id=\"1742\"]system[\/pb_glossary] scientists study how geologic processes shape not only the world, but all the spheres it contains. They study how these multidisciplinary spheres relate, interact, and change in response to natural cycles and human-driven forces. They use [pb_glossary id=\"1778\"]elements[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0from physics, chemistry, biology, meteorology, environmental science, zoology, hydrology, and many other sciences.\n<\/span>\n<h3><b>1.5.2 Rock Cycle<\/b><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2480\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Fig-6-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-46\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Fig-6-1-300x278.jpg\" alt=\"The rock cycle shows how different rock groups are interconnected. Metamorphic rocks can come from adding heat and\/or pressure to other metamorphic rock or sedimentary or igneous rocks\" width=\"300\" height=\"278\"><\/a> Rock cycle showing the five materials (such as igneous rocks and sediment) and the processes by which one changes into another (such as weathering). (Source: Peter Davis)[\/caption]\n\nThe most fundamental view of Earth materials is the [pb_glossary id=\"1749\"]rock cycle[\/pb_glossary], which describes the major materials that comprise the Earth, the processes that form them, and how they relate to each other. It usually begins with hot molten liquid rock called [pb_glossary id=\"1750\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id=\"1751\"]lava[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"1750\"]Magma[\/pb_glossary] forms under the Earth\u2019s surface in the [pb_glossary id=\"1658\"]crust[\/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id=\"1664\"]mantle[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"1751\"]Lava[\/pb_glossary] is molten rock that erupts onto the Earth\u2019s surface. When [pb_glossary id=\"1750\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id=\"1751\"]lava[\/pb_glossary] cools, it solidifies by a process called [pb_glossary id=\"1752\"]crystallization[\/pb_glossary] in which [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] grow within the [pb_glossary id=\"1750\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id=\"1751\"]lava[\/pb_glossary]. The rocks resulting rocks are [pb_glossary id=\"2605\"]igneous[\/pb_glossary] rocks. I<em>gnis<\/em> is Latin for fire.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2481\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Raindrop_impressions_mcr1-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-47\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Raindrop_impressions_mcr1-1-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"This grey rock has round circles left by raindrops\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\"><\/a> Mississippian raindrop impressions over wave ripples from Nova Scotia.[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"2605\"]Igneous[\/pb_glossary] rocks, as well as other types of rocks, on Earth\u2019s surface are exposed to [pb_glossary id=\"1754\"]weathering[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1755\"]erosion[\/pb_glossary], which produces [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"1754\"]Weathering[\/pb_glossary] is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments. [pb_glossary id=\"1755\"]Erosion[\/pb_glossary] is the removal of those fragments from their original location. The broken-down and transported fragments or grains are considered [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary], such as gravel, sand, silt, and clay. These [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary] may be transported by [pb_glossary id=\"2594\"]streams[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"2592\"]rivers[\/pb_glossary], ocean currents, [pb_glossary id=\"2606\"]glaciers[\/pb_glossary], and wind.\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]Sediments[\/pb_glossary] come to rest in a process known as [pb_glossary id=\"1757\"]deposition[\/pb_glossary]. As the deposited [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary] accumulate\u2014often under water, such as in a shallow [pb_glossary id=\"1961\"]marine[\/pb_glossary] environment\u2014the older [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary] get buried by the new deposits. The deposits are compacted by the weight of the overlying [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary] and individual grains are cemented together by [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] in [pb_glossary id=\"2207\"]groundwater[\/pb_glossary]. These processes of [pb_glossary id=\"1758\"]compaction[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1759\"]cementation[\/pb_glossary] are called [pb_glossary id=\"1760\"]lithification[\/pb_glossary]. Lithified [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary] are considered a [pb_glossary id=\"1761\"]sedimentary rock[\/pb_glossary], such as [pb_glossary id=\"1912\"]sandstone[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1917\"]shale[\/pb_glossary]. Other sedimentary rocks are made by direct chemical [pb_glossary id=\"1785\"]precipitation[\/pb_glossary] of [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] rather than eroded [pb_glossary id=\"1756\"]sediments[\/pb_glossary], and are known as [pb_glossary id=\"1904\"]chemical sedimentary[\/pb_glossary] rocks.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2482\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-48 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Swirling bands of light and dark minerals.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a> Migmatite, a rock which was partially molten. (Source: Peter Davis)[\/caption]\n\nPre-existing rocks may be transformed into a [pb_glossary id=\"1762\"]metamorphic rock[\/pb_glossary]; <em>meta- <\/em>means change and <em>-morphos<\/em> means form or shape. When rocks are subjected to extreme increases in [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] or pressure, the [pb_glossary id=\"1765\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] crystals are enlarged or altered into entirely new [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0with similar chemical make up. High temperatures and pressures occur in rocks buried deep within the Earth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1658\"]crust[\/pb_glossary] or that come into contact with hot [pb_glossary id=\"1750\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id=\"1751\"]lava[\/pb_glossary]. If the [pb_glossary id=\"1767\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary] and pressure conditions melt the rocks to create [pb_glossary id=\"1750\"]magma[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1751\"]lava[\/pb_glossary], the [pb_glossary id=\"1749\"]rock cycle[\/pb_glossary] begins anew with the creation of new rocks.\n<h3><b>1.5.3 Plate Tectonics and Layers of Earth<\/b><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2516\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2.png\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-49\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2-300x205.png\" alt=\"There are about 10 major plates\" width=\"300\" height=\"205\"><\/a> Map of the major plates and their motions along boundaries.[\/caption]\n\nThe [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] of <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]plate tectonics[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is the fundamental unifying principle of geology and the [pb_glossary id=\"1749\"]rock cycle[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]Plate tectonics[\/pb_glossary] describes how Earth\u2019s layers move relative to each other, focusing on the [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]tectonic[\/pb_glossary] or lithospheric [pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]plates[\/pb_glossary] of the outer layer. [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]Tectonic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]plates[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0float, collide, slide past each other, and split apart on an underlying mobile layer called the <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1671\"]asthenosphere[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. Major landforms are created at the [pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]plate[\/pb_glossary] boundaries, and rocks within the [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]tectonic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]plates[\/pb_glossary] move through the [pb_glossary id=\"1749\"]rock cycle[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]Plate tectonics[\/pb_glossary] is discussed in more detail in <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/2-plate-tectonics\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Chapter 2<\/a>.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2513\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/MohoDepth-1.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-50 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1-300x167.png\" alt=\"Places with mountain building have a deeper moho.\" width=\"300\" height=\"167\"><\/a> The global map of the depth of the moho.[\/caption]\n\nEarth\u2019s three main geological layers can be categorized by chemical [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composition[\/pb_glossary] or the chemical makeup: [pb_glossary id=\"1658\"]crust[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1664\"]mantle[\/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id=\"1667\"]core[\/pb_glossary]. The [pb_glossary id=\"1658\"]crust[\/pb_glossary] is the outermost layer and [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composed[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of mostly silicon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, and magnesium. There are two types, [pb_glossary id=\"1653\"]continental crust[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1659\"]oceanic crust[\/pb_glossary]. <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1653\"]Continental crust[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is about 50 km (30 mi) thick, [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composed[\/pb_glossary] of low-density [pb_glossary id=\"2605\"]igneous[\/pb_glossary] and sedimentary rocks, <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1659\"]Oceanic crust[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is approximately 10 km (6 mi) thick and made of high-density [pb_glossary id=\"2605\"]igneous[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1013\"]basalt[\/pb_glossary]-type rocks. [pb_glossary id=\"1659\"]Oceanic crust[\/pb_glossary] makes up most of the [pb_glossary id=\"1963\"]ocean floor[\/pb_glossary], covering about 70% of the planet. [pb_glossary id=\"2611\"]Tectonic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]plates[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are made of [pb_glossary id=\"1658\"]crust[\/pb_glossary] and a portion the upper [pb_glossary id=\"1664\"]mantle[\/pb_glossary], forming a rigid physical layer called the [pb_glossary id=\"1668\"]lithosphere[\/pb_glossary].\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2512\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg_-1.png\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-51\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg_-1-300x211.png\" alt=\"The crust and lithosphere are on the outside of the Earth and are thin. Below the crust is the mantle and core. Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere.\" width=\"300\" height=\"211\"><\/a> The layers of the Earth. Physical layers include lithosphere and asthenosphere; chemical layers are crust, mantle, and core.[\/caption]\n\nThe <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1664\"]mantle[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, the largest chemical layer by volume, lies below the [pb_glossary id=\"1658\"]crust[\/pb_glossary] and extends down to about 2,900 km (1,800 mi) below the Earth\u2019s surface. The mostly solid [pb_glossary id=\"1664\"]mantle[\/pb_glossary] is made of [pb_glossary id=\"1666\"]peridotite[\/pb_glossary], a high-density [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composed[\/pb_glossary] of silica, iron, and magnesium. The upper part of mantel is very hot and flexible, which allows the overlying [pb_glossary id=\"2611\"]tectonic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1669\"]plates[\/pb_glossary] to float and move about on it. Under the [pb_glossary id=\"1664\"]mantle[\/pb_glossary] is the Earth\u2019s [pb_glossary id=\"1667\"]core[\/pb_glossary], which is 3,500 km (2,200 mi) thick and made of iron and nickel. The [pb_glossary id=\"1667\"]core[\/pb_glossary] consists of two parts, a liquid <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1673\"]outer core[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> and solid <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"1674\"]inner core[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. Rotations within the solid and liquid [pb_glossary id=\"2423\"]metallic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1667\"]core[\/pb_glossary] generate Earth\u2019s magnetic field (see figure).\n<h3><b>1.5.4 Geologic Time and Deep Time<\/b><\/h3>\n<blockquote>\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2486\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/GeologicClock.png\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-52\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GeologicClock-300x288.png\" alt=\"The circle starts at 4.6 billion years ago, then loops around to zero.\" width=\"300\" height=\"288\"><\/a> Geologic time on Earth, represented circularly, to show the individual time divisions and important events. Ga=billion years ago, Ma=million years ago.[\/caption]\n\n\u201cThe result, therefore, of our present enquiry is, that we find no vestige of a beginning; no prospect of an end.\u201d (James Hutton, 1788)<\/blockquote>\nOne of the early pioneers of geology, James Hutton, wrote this about the age of the Earth after many years of geological study. Although he wasn\u2019t exactly correct\u2014there is a beginning and will be an end to planet Earth\u2014Hutton was expressing the difficulty humans have in perceiving the vastness of geological time. Hutton did not assign an age to the Earth, although he was the first to suggest the planet was very old.\nToday we know Earth is approximately 4.54 \u00b1 0.05 billion years old. This age was first calculated by Caltech professor Clair Patterson in 1956, who measured the half-lives of lead [pb_glossary id=\"1779\"]isotopes[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0to radiometrically date a [pb_glossary id=\"1254\"]meteorite[\/pb_glossary] recovered in Arizona. Studying geologic time, also known as deep time, can help us overcome a perspective of Earth that is limited to our short lifetimes. Compared to the geologic scale, the human lifespan is very short, and we struggle to comprehend the depth of geologic time and slowness of geologic processes. For example, the study of earthquakes only goes back about 100 years; however, there is geologic evidence of large earthquakes occurring thousands of years ago. And scientific evidence indicates earthquakes will continue for many centuries into the future.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2492\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"793\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-53 size-large\" title=\"Source: Belinda Madsen, Salt Lake Community College\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1-793x1024.jpg\" alt=\"The Geologic Time Scale with an age of each unit shown by a scale\" width=\"793\" height=\"1024\"><\/a> Geologic time scale showing time period names and ages. (Source: Belinda Madsen)[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"1242\"]Eons[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0are the largest divisions of time, and from oldest to youngest are named [pb_glossary id=\"1255\"]Hadean[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1257\"]Archean[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1261\"]Proterozoic[\/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id=\"1269\"]Phanerozoic[\/pb_glossary]. The three oldest [pb_glossary id=\"1242\"]eons[\/pb_glossary] are sometimes collectively referred to as [pb_glossary id=\"1270\"]Precambrian[\/pb_glossary] time.\n\nLife first appeared more than 3,800 million of years ago (Ma). From 3,500 Ma to 542 Ma, or 88% of geologic time, the predominant life forms were single-celled organisms such as bacteria. More complex organisms appeared only more recently, during the current [pb_glossary id=\"1269\"]Phanerozoic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1242\"]Eon[\/pb_glossary], which includes the last 542 million years or 12% of geologic time.\n\nThe name [pb_glossary id=\"1269\"]Phanerozoic[\/pb_glossary] comes from <em>phaneros<\/em>, which means visible, and <em>zoic<\/em>, meaning life. This [pb_glossary id=\"1242\"]eon[\/pb_glossary] marks the proliferation of multicellular animals with hard body parts, such as shells, which are preserved in the geological record as [pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]fossils[\/pb_glossary]. Land-dwelling animals have existed for 360 million years, or 8% of geologic time. The demise of the dinosaurs and subsequent rise of mammals occurred around 65 Ma, or 1.5% of geologic time. Our human ancestors belonging to the genus <em>Homo<\/em> have existed since approximately 2.2 Ma\u20140.05% of geological time or just 1\/2,000th the total age of Earth.\n\nThe [pb_glossary id=\"1269\"]Phanerozoic[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1242\"]Eon[\/pb_glossary] is divided into three [pb_glossary id=\"1243\"]eras[\/pb_glossary]: [pb_glossary id=\"1271\"]Paleozoic[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"479\"]Mesozoic[\/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"1271\"]Paleozoic[\/pb_glossary] means <em>ancient life<\/em>, and organisms of this era included invertebrate animals, fish, amphibians, and reptiles. The [pb_glossary id=\"479\"]Mesozoic[\/pb_glossary] (<em>middle life<\/em>) is popularly known as the Age of Reptiles and is characterized by the abundance of dinosaurs, many of which evolved into birds. The [pb_glossary id=\"1275\"]mass extinction[\/pb_glossary] of the dinosaurs and other apex predator reptiles marked the end of the [pb_glossary id=\"479\"]Mesozoic[\/pb_glossary] and beginning of the [pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary] means <em>new life<\/em> and is also called the Age of Mammals, during which mammals evolved to become the predominant land-dwelling animals. [pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]Fossils[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0of early humans, or hominids, appear in the rock record only during the last few million years of the [pb_glossary id=\"488\"]Cenozoic[\/pb_glossary]. The geologic time scale, geologic time, and geologic history are discussed in more detail in\u00a0chapters <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/7-geologic-time\/\">7<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/8-earth-history\/\">8<\/a>.\n<h3>1.5.5 \u00a0 The Geologist\u2019s Tools<\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2488\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"222\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-54\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen-222x300.jpg\" alt=\"The fossil has bird and dinosaur features.\" width=\"222\" height=\"300\"><\/a> Iconic Archaeopteryx lithographica fossil from Germany.[\/caption]\n\nIn its simplest form, a geologist\u2019s tool may be a rock hammer used for sampling a fresh surface of a rock. A basic tool set for fieldwork might also include:\n<ul>\n \t<li>Magnifying lens for looking at mineralogical details<\/li>\n \t<li>Compass for measuring the orientation of geologic features<\/li>\n \t<li>Map for documenting the local distribution of rocks and [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]<\/li>\n \t<li>Magnet for identifying magnetic [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] like magnetite<\/li>\n \t<li>Dilute [pb_glossary id=\"1783\"]solution[\/pb_glossary] of hydrochloric acid to identify [pb_glossary id=\"969\"]carbonate[\/pb_glossary]-containing [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] like [pb_glossary id=\"970\"]calcite[\/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id=\"1929\"]limestone[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nIn the laboratory, geologists use optical microscopes to closely examine rocks and [pb_glossary id=\"250\"]soil[\/pb_glossary] for [pb_glossary id=\"1765\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary] [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composition[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1906\"]grain size[\/pb_glossary]. Laser and mass spectrometers precisely measure the chemical [pb_glossary id=\"1909\"]composition[\/pb_glossary] and geological age of [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"2173\"]Seismographs[\/pb_glossary]\u00a0record and locate earthquake activity, or when used in conjunction with ground penetrating radar, locate objects buried beneath the surface of the earth. Scientists apply computer simulations to turn their collected data into testable, theoretical models. Hydrogeologists drill wells to sample and analyze underground water quality and availability. Geochemists use scanning electron microscopes to analyze [pb_glossary id=\"2566\"]minerals[\/pb_glossary] at the atomic level, via x-rays. Other geologists use gas chromatography to analyze liquids and gases trapped in [pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]glacial[\/pb_glossary] ice or rocks.\n\nTechnology provides new tools for scientific [pb_glossary id=\"1729\"]observation[\/pb_glossary], which leads to new evidence that helps scientists revise and even refute old ideas. Because the ultimate technology will never be discovered, the ultimate [pb_glossary id=\"1729\"]observation[\/pb_glossary] will never be made. And this is the beauty of science\u2014it is ever-advancing and always discovering something new.\n\n&nbsp;\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"5\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_3711\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-55\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.5 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><strong>1.6 Science Denial and Evaluating Sources<\/strong><\/h2>\n[media src=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/8MqTOEospfo\" \/]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_3710\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Science-in-America-YouTube.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-56\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n\n&nbsp;\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2489\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Anti-EvolutionLeague.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-57\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Anti-EvolutionLeague-300x223.jpg\" alt=\"There are several people around a sign\" width=\"300\" height=\"223\"><\/a> Anti-evolution league at the infamous Tennessee v. Scopes trial.[\/caption]\n\nIntroductory science courses usually deal with accepted scientific [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] and do not include opposing ideas, even though these alternate ideas may be credible. This makes it easier for students to understand the complex material. Advanced students will encounter more controversies as they continue to study their discipline.\n\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Some groups of people argue that some established scientific theories are wrong, not based on their scientific merit but rather on the ideology of the group. This section focuses on how to identify evidence based information and differentiate it from [pb_glossary id=\"1727\"]pseudoscience[\/pb_glossary].\n<\/span>\n<h3>1.6.1 Science Denial<\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2490\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/MarchForScience2017-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-2490\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MarchForScience2017-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"There are many people on the steps of the capitol.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\"><\/a> 2017 March for Science in Salt Lake City. This and other similar marches were in response to funding cuts and anti-science rhetoric.[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"1763\"]Science denial[\/pb_glossary] happens when people argue that established scientific theories are wrong, not based on scientific merit but rather on [pb_glossary id=\"1723\"]subjective[\/pb_glossary] ideology\u2014such as for social, political, or economic reasons. Organizations and people use [pb_glossary id=\"1763\"]science denial[\/pb_glossary] as a rhetorical argument against issues or ideas they oppose. Three examples of [pb_glossary id=\"1763\"]science denial[\/pb_glossary] versus science are: 1) teaching evolution in public schools, 2) linking tobacco smoke to cancer, and 3) linking human activity to [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change. Among these, denial of [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change is strongly connected with geology. A [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] denier specifically denies or doubts the [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary] conclusions of geologists and [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] scientists.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2491\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"263\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/1.4_pillars_Science-Denial_NCSE.png\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-59\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4_pillars_Science-Denial_NCSE-263x300.png\" alt=\"Shows three pillars labeled &quot;Undermine the Science&quot;, &quot;Claim the Result is Evil&quot;, and &quot;Demand Equal Time&quot;.\" width=\"263\" height=\"300\"><\/a> Three false rhetorical arguments of science denial (Source: National Center for Science Education)[\/caption]\n\n[pb_glossary id=\"1763\"]Science denial[\/pb_glossary] generally uses three false arguments. The first argument tries to undermine the credibility of the scientific conclusion by claiming the research methods are flawed or the [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] is not universally accepted\u2014the science is unsettled. The notion that scientific ideas are not absolute creates doubt for non-scientists; however, a lack of universal truths should not be confused with scientific uncertainty. Because science is based on falsfiabiity, scientists avoid claiming universal truths and use language that conveys uncertainty. This allows scientific ideas to change and evolve as more evidence is uncovered.\n\nThe second argument claims the researchers are not [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary] and motivated by an ideology or economic agenda. This is an <em>ad hominem<\/em> argument in which a person\u2019s character is attacked instead of the merit of their argument. They claim results have been manipulated so researchers can justify asking for more funding. They claim that because the researchers are funded by a federal grant, they are using their results to lobby for expanded government regulation.\n\nThe third argument is to demand a balanced view, equal time in media coverage and educational curricula, to engender the false illusion of two equally valid arguments. Science deniers frequently demand equal coverage of their proposals, even when there is little scientific evidence supporting their ideology. For example, science deniers might demand religious explanations be taught as an alternative to the well-established [pb_glossary id=\"1733\"]theory[\/pb_glossary] of evolution <span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> [zotpressInText item=\"{X9U8B54N},{W934C3CR}\" format=\"%num%\" brackets=\"yes\"]<\/span>. Or that all possible causes of [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change be discussed as equally probable, regardless of the body of evidence. Conclusions derived using the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary] should not be confused with those based on ideologies.\n\nFurthermore, conclusions about nature derived from ideologies have no place in science research and education. For example, it would be inappropriate to teach the flat earth model in a modern geology course because this idea has been disproved by the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary]. Unfortunately, widespread scientific illiteracy allows these arguments to be used to suppress scientific knowledge and spread misinformation.\n\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The [pb_glossary id=\"2038\"]formation[\/pb_glossary] of new conclusions based on the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary] is the only way to change scientific conclusions. We wouldn't teach Flat Earth geology along with [pb_glossary id=\"1654\"]plate tectonics[\/pb_glossary] because Flat Earthers don't follow the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary]. The fact that scientists avoid universal truths and change their ideas as more evidence is uncovered shouldn't be seen as meaning that the science is unsettled. Because of widespread scientific illiteracy, these arguments are used by those who wish to suppress\u00a0science and misinform the general public.<\/span>\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2492\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg_.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-60 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg_-300x293.png\" alt=\"The lines are similar when comparing smoking and cancer\" width=\"300\" height=\"293\"><\/a> The lag time between cancer after smoking, plus the ethics of running human trials, delayed the government in taking action against tobacco.[\/caption]\n\nIn a classic case of [pb_glossary id=\"1763\"]science denial[\/pb_glossary], beginning in the 1960s and for the next three decades, the tobacco industry and their scientists used rhetorical arguments to deny a connection between tobacco usage and cancer. Once it became clear scientific studies overwhelmingly found that using tobacco dramatically increased a person's likelihood of getting cancer, their next strategy was to create a sense of doubt about on the science. The tobacco industry suggested the results were not yet fully understood and more study was needed. They used this doubt to lobby for delaying legislative action that would warn consumers of the potential health hazards <span style=\"font-weight: 400\">[zotpressInText item=\"{X9U8B54N},{CBD5438R}\" format=\"%num%\" brackets=\"yes\"]<\/span>. This same tactic is currently being employed by those who deny the significance of human involvement in [pb_glossary id=\"757\"]climate[\/pb_glossary] change.\n<h3><strong>1.6.2 Evaluating Sources of Information<\/strong><\/h3>\n[caption id=\"attachment_2493\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity.png\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-61\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity-300x228.png\" alt=\"There is a large spike in earthquakes\" width=\"300\" height=\"228\"><\/a> This graph shows earthquake data. To call this data induced, due to fracking, would be an interpretation.[\/caption]\n\nIn the age of the internet, information is plentiful. Geologists, scientists, or anyone exploring scientific inquiry must discern valid sources of information from [pb_glossary id=\"1727\"]pseudoscience[\/pb_glossary] and misinformation. This evaluation is especially important in scientific research because scientific knowledge is respected for its reliability. Textbooks such as this one can aid this complex and crucial task. At its roots, quality information comes from the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary], beginning with the empirical thinking of Aristotle. The application of the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary] helps produce unbiased results. A valid inference or interpretation is based on [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary] evidence or data. Credible data and inferences are clearly labeled, separated, and differentiated. Anyone looking over the data can understand how the author\u2019s conclusion was derived or come to an alternative conclusion. Scientific procedures are clearly defined so the investigation can be replicated to confirm the original results or expanded further to produce new results. These measures make a scientific inquiry valid and its use as a source reputable. Of course, substandard work occasionally slips through and retractions are published from time to time. An infamous article linking the MMR vaccine to autism appeared in the highly reputable journal <em>Lancet<\/em> in 1998. Journalists discovered the author had multiple conflicts of interest and fabricated data, and the article was retracted in 2010.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_2494\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"100\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/GSA_logo3R_web100.gif\"><img class=\"wp-image-62 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GSA_logo3R_web100.gif\" alt=\"\" width=\"100\" height=\"111\"><\/a> Logo for The Geological Society of America, one of the leading geoscience organizations. They also publish GSA Bulletin, a reputable geology journal.[\/caption]\n\nIn addition to methodology, data, and results, the authors of a study should be investigated. When looking into any research, the author(s) should be investigated. An author\u2019s credibility is based on multiple factors, such as having a degree in a relevant topic or being funded from an unbiased source.\n\nThe same rigor should be applied to evaluating the publisher, ensuring the results reported come from an unbiased process. The publisher should be easy to discover. Good publishers will show the latest papers in the journal and make their contact information and identification clear.\u00a0 Reputable journals show their [pb_glossary id=\"1732\"]peer review[\/pb_glossary] style.\u00a0 Some journal are predatory, where they use unexplained and unnecessary fees to submit and access journals. Reputable journals have recognizable editorial boards. Often, a reliable journal will associate with a trade, association, or recognized open source initiative.\n\nOne of the hallmarks of scientific research is [pb_glossary id=\"1732\"]peer review[\/pb_glossary]. \u00a0Research should be transparent to [pb_glossary id=\"1732\"]peer review[\/pb_glossary]. This allows the scientific community to reproduce experimental results, correct and retract errors, and validate theories. This allows reproduction of experimental results, corrections of errors, and proper justification of the research to experts.\n\nCitation is not only imperative to avoid plagiarism, but also allows readers to investigate an author\u2019s line of thought and conclusions. When reading scientific works, it is important to confirm the citations are from reputable scientific research. Most often, scientific citations are used to reference paraphrasing rather than quotes. The number of times a work is cited is said to measure of the influence an investigation has within the scientific community, although this technique is inherently biased.\n\n&nbsp;\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"6\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_3709\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-63\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.6 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\nScience is a process, with no beginning and no end. Science is never finished because a full truth can never be known. However, science and the [pb_glossary id=\"1728\"]scientific method[\/pb_glossary] are the best way to understand the universe we live in. Scientists draw conclusions based on [pb_glossary id=\"1722\"]objective[\/pb_glossary] evidence; they consolidate these conclusions into unifying models. Geologists likewise understand studying the Earth is an ongoing process, beginning with James Hutton who declared the Earth has \u201c\u2026no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end.\u201d Geologists explore the 4.5 billion-year history of Earth, its resources, and its many hazards. From a larger viewpoint, geology can teach people how to develop credible conclusions, as well as identify and stop misinformation.\n\n&nbsp;\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this chapter.<\/h3>\n[h5p id=\"7\"]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_3708\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"150\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Ch.1-Review.png\"><img class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-64\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\"><\/a> If you using the printed version of this OER, access the review quiz for Chapter 1 via this QR Code.[\/caption]\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\">\n<ol>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Adams, F.D., 1954, The birth and development of the geological sciences<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Alfe, D., Gillan, M.J., and Price, G.D., 2002, Composition and temperature of the Earth\u2019s core constrained by combining ab initio calculations and seismic data: Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., v. 195, no. 1, p. 91\u201398.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Alkin, M.C., 2004, Evaluation Roots: Tracing theorists\u2019 views and influences: SAGE.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Beckwith, C., 2013, How western Europe developed a full scientific method: Berfrois.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Birch, F., 1952, Elasticity and constitution of the Earth\u2019s interior: J. Geophys. Res., v. 57, no. 2, p. 227\u2013286., doi: <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/JZ057i002p00227\">10.1029\/JZ057i002p00227<\/a>.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Bocking, S., 2004, Nature\u2019s experts: science, politics, and the environment: Rutgers University Press.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Chamberlin, T.C., 1890, The method of multiple working hypotheses: Science, v. 15, no. 366, p. 92\u201396.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Cohen, H.F., 2010, How modern science came into the world: Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough: Amsterdam University Press.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Darwin, C., 1846, Geological Observations on South America: Being the Third Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, Under the Command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. During the Years 1832 to 1836: Smith, Elder and Company.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Drake, S., 1990, Galileo: Pioneer Scientist: University of Toronto Press.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Engdahl, E.R., Flynn, E.A., and Masse, R.P., 1974, Differential PkiKP travel times and the radius of the core: Geophysical J Royal Astro Soc, v. 40, p. 457\u2013463.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Everitt, A., 2016, The Rise of Athens: The Story of the World\u2019s Greatest Civilization:<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Goldstein, B.R., 2002, Copernicus and the origin of his heliocentric system: Journal for the History of Astronomy, v. 33, p. 219\u2013235.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Goldsworthy, A.K., 2011, The complete Roman army: Thames &amp; Hudson.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hans Wedepohl, K., 1995, The composition of the continental crust: Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, v. 59, no. 7, p. 1217\u20131232.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Heilbron, J.L., 2012, Galileo: Oxford, Oxford University Press, 528 p.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hogendijk, J.P., and Sabra, A.I., 2003, The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives: MIT Press.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Jakosky, B.M., Grebowsky, J.M., Luhmann, J.G., Connerney, J., Eparvier, F., Ergun, R., Halekas, J., Larson, D., Mahaffy, P., McFadden, J., Mitchell, D.F., Schneider, N., Zurek, R., Bougher, S., and others, 2015, MAVEN observations of the response of Mars to an interplanetary coronal mass ejection: Science, v. 350, no. 6261, p. aad0210.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Kerferd, G.B., 1959, The Biography of Aristotle Ingemar D\u00fcring: Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition. (Studia Graeca et Latina Gothoburgensia v.) Pp. 490; 1 plate. Gothenburg: Institute of Classical Studies, 1957. Paper, Kr. 32: Classical Rev., v. 9, no. 02, p. 128\u2013130.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Kolbert, E., 2014, The sixth extinction: an unnatural history: New York, Henry Holt and Co., 336 p.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Krimsky, S., 2013, Do financial conflicts of interest bias research? An inquiry into the \u201cfunding effect\u201d hypothesis: Sci. Technol. Human Values, v. 38, no. 4, p. 566\u2013587.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Lehmann, I., 1936, P\u2019, Publ: Bur. Centr. Seism. Internat. Serie A, v. 14, p. 87\u2013115.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Marshall, J., 2010, A short history of Greek philosophy: Andrews UK Limited.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Martin, C., 2014, Subverting Aristotle: Religion, History, and Philosophy in Early Modern Science: Baltimore\u202f: Johns Hopkins University Press.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Mayr, E., 1942, Systematics and the Origin of Species, from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist: Harvard University Press.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Montgomery, K., 2003, Siccar Point and teaching the history of geology: J. Geosci. Educ.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Mooney, W.D., Laske, G., and Masters, T.G., 1998, CRUST 5.1: A global crustal model: J. Geophys. Res. [Solid Earth], v. 103, no. B1, p. 727\u2013747.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Moustafa, K., 2016, Aberration of the Citation: Account. Res., v. 23, no. 4, p. 230\u2013244.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">National Center for Science Education, 2016, Climate change denial: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/ncse.com\/climate\/denial\">http:\/\/ncse.com\/climate\/denial<\/a>, accessed April 2016.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Oreskes, N., Conway, E., and Cain, S., 2010, Merchants of doubt: how a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming: Bloomsbury Press, 368 p.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Paradowski, R.J., 2012, Nicolas Steno: Danish anatomist and geologist: Great Lives from History: Scientists &amp; Science, p. 830\u2013832.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Patterson, C., 1956, Age of meteorites and the earth: Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, v. 10, no. 4, p. 230\u2013237.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Popper, K., 2002, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge: London\u202f; New York, Routledge, 608 p.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Porter, R., 1976, Charles Lyell and the Principles of the History of Geology: Br. J. Hist. Sci., v. 9, no. 02, p. 91\u2013103.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Railsback, B.L., 1990, T. C. Chamberlin\u2019s \u201cMethod of Multiple Working Hypotheses\u201d: An encapsulation for modern students: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gly.uga.edu\/railsback\/railsback_chamberlin.html\">http:\/\/www.gly.uga.edu\/railsback\/railsback_chamberlin.html<\/a>, accessed December 2016.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Railsback, B.L., 2004, T. C. Chamberlin\u2019s \u201cMethod of Multiple Working Hypotheses\u201d: An encapsulation for modern students: Houston Geological Society Bulletin, v. 47, no. 2, p. 68\u201369.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Rappaport, R., 1994, James Hutton and the History of Geology. Dennis R. Dean: Isis, v. 85, no. 3, p. 524\u2013525.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Repcheck, J., 2007, Copernicus\u2019 secret: How the scientific revolution began: Simon and Schuster.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Repcheck, J., 2009, The Man Who Found Time\u202f: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth\u2019s Antiquity: New York: Basic Books.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Sabra, A.I. and Others, 1989, The optics of Ibn al-Haytham: Books I-III: On direct vision: Warburg Institute, University of London.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Saliba, G., 2007, Islamic science and the making of the European renaissance: MIT Press.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Shermer, M., 2011, What Is Pseudoscience? Scientific American.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Snow, C.E. (Ed.), 2016, Science literacy: concepts, contexts, and consequences: Washington, DC, National Academies Press (US).<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Spier, R., 2002, The history of the peer-review process: Trends Biotechnol., v. 20, no. 8, p. 357\u2013358.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Van Reybrouck, D., 2012, From Primitives to Primates: A History of Ethnographic and Primatological Analogies in the Study of Prehistory: Sidestone Press.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Waters, C.N., Zalasiewicz, J., Summerhayes, C., Barnosky, A.D., Poirier, C., Ga\\luszka, A., Cearreta, A., Edgeworth, M., Ellis, E.C., Ellis, M., Jeandel, C., Leinfelder, R., McNeill, J.R., Richter, D.D., and others, 2016, The Anthropocene is functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene: Science, v. 351, no. 6269, p. aad2622.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">de Wijs, G.A., Kresse, G., Vo\u010dadlo, L., Dobson, D., Alf\u00e8, D., Gillan, M.J., and Price, G.D., 1998, The viscosity of liquid iron at the physical conditions of the Earth\u2019s core: Nature, v. 392, no. 6678, p. 805\u2013807., doi: <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/33905\">10.1038\/33905<\/a>.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Wyhe, J.V., 2008, Darwin: Andre Deutsch, 72 p.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Wyllie, P.J., 1970, Ultramafic rocks and the upper mantle, <i>in<\/i> Morgan, B.A., editor, Fiftieth anniversary symposia: Mineralogy and petrology of the Upper Mantle; Sulfides; Mineralogy and geochemistry of non-marine evaporites: Washington, DC, Mineralogical Society of America, p. 3\u201332.<\/li>\n \t<li class=\"csl-entry\">Zalasiewicz, J., Williams, M., Smith, A., Barry, T.L., Coe, A.L., Bown, P.R., Brenchley, P., Cantrill, D., Gale, A., Gibbard, P., and Others, 2008, Are we now living in the Anthropocene? GSA Today, v. 18, no. 2, p. 4.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<figure id=\"attachment_1683\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1683\" style=\"width: 3648px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/DT1-2-scaled.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1683 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2021\/09\/DT1-2-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"It is a steep rock jutting out of the countryside.\" width=\"3648\" height=\"2736\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1683\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Devils Tower, Wyoming.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h1><strong>1 Understanding Science<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p><b>STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES<\/b><\/p>\n<p><b>At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Contrast <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a>\u00a0versus <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1723\">subjective<\/a>\u00a0observations, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1724\">quantitative<\/a>\u00a0versus <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1725\">qualitative<\/a>\u00a0observations<\/li>\n<li>Identify a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1727\">pseudoscience<\/a>\u00a0based on its lack of falsifiability<\/li>\n<li>Contrast the methods used by Aristotle and Galileo to describe the natural environment<\/li>\n<li>Explain the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a>\u00a0and apply it to a problem or question<\/li>\n<li>Describe the foundations of modern geology, such as the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">principle of uniformitarianism<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Contrast <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">uniformitarianism<\/a>\u00a0with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1737\">catastrophism<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Explain why studying geology is important<\/li>\n<li>Identify how Earth materials are transformed by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1749\">rock cycle<\/a>\u00a0processes<\/li>\n<li>Describe the steps involved in a reputable scientific study<\/li>\n<li>Explain rhetorical arguments used by science deniers<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1.1 <\/span><b>What is Science?<\/b><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1627\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1627\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/YS1-1.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-21 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"The waterfall is in a valley\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1-350x263.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/YS1-1.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1627\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This is Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone in Yellowstone National Park. An objective statement about this would be: \u00ab\u00a0The picture is of a waterfall.\u00a0\u00bb A subjective statement would be: \u00ab\u00a0The picture is beautiful.\u00a0\u00bb or \u00ab\u00a0The waterfall is there because of erosion.\u00a0\u00bb<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Scientists seek to understand the fundamental principles that explain natural patterns and processes. Science is more than just a body of knowledge, science provides a means to evaluate and create new knowledge without bias. Scientists use <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a> evidence over <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1723\">subjective<\/a> evidence, to reach sound and logical conclusions.<\/p>\n<p>An <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1729\">observation<\/a> is without personal bias and the same by all individuals. Humans are biased by nature, so they cannot be completely <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a>; the goal is to be as unbiased as possible. A <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1723\">subjective<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1729\">observation<\/a> is based on a person\u2019s feelings and beliefs and is unique to that individual.<\/p>\n<p>Another way scientists avoid bias is by using <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1724\">quantitative<\/a> over <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1725\">qualitative<\/a> measurements whenever possible. A <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1724\">quantitative<\/a> measurement is expressed with a specific numerical value. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1725\">Qualitative<\/a> observations are general or relative descriptions. For example, describing a rock as red or heavy is a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1725\">qualitative<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1729\">observation<\/a>. Determining a rock\u2019s color by measuring wavelengths of reflected light or its density by measuring the proportions of minerals it contains is <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1724\">quantitative<\/a>. Numerical values are more precise than general descriptions, and they can be analyzed using statistical calculations. This is why <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1724\">quantitative<\/a> measurements are much more useful to scientists than <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1725\">qualitative<\/a> observations.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2460\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2460\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/MSH_Alex-2-scaled.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-2460 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MSH_Alex-2-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"A person is looking into the canyon.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2460\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Canyons like this, carved in the deposit left by the May 18th, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens is sometimes used by purveyors of pseudoscience as evidence for the Earth being very young. In reality, the unconsolidated and unlithified volcanic deposit is carved much more easily than other canyons like the Grand Canyon.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Establishing truth in science is difficult because all scientific claims are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1726\">falsifiable<\/a>, which means any initial <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> may be tested and proven false. Only after exhaustively eliminating false results, competing ideas, and possible variations does a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> become regarded as a reliable scientific <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a>. This meticulous scrutiny reveals weaknesses or flaws in a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> and is the strength that supports all scientific ideas and procedures. In fact, proving current ideas are wrong has been the driving force\u00a0behind many scientific careers.<\/p>\n<p>Falsifiability separates science from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1727\">pseudoscience<\/a>. Scientists are wary of explanations of natural phenomena that discourage or avoid falsifiability. An explanation that cannot be tested or does not meet scientific standards is not considered science, but <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1727\">pseudoscience<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1727\">Pseudoscience<\/a> is a collection of ideas that may appear scientific but does not use the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a>. Astrology is an example of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1727\">pseudoscience<\/a>. It is a belief system that attributes the movement of celestial bodies to influencing human behavior. Astrologers rely on celestial observations, but their conclusions are not based on experimental evidence and their statements are not <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1726\">falsifiable<\/a>. This is not to be confused with astronomy which is the scientific study of celestial bodies and the cosmos<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2461\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2461\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/DSC00761-2-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-2461 size-medium\" title=\"Source: By Matt Affolter\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DSC00761-2-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Many people are standing around and talking.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2461\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Geologists share information by publishing, attending conferences, and even going on field trips, such as this trip to western Utah by the Utah Geological Association in 2009.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Science is also a social process. Scientists share their ideas with peers at conferences, seeking guidance and feedback. Research papers and data submitted for publication are rigorously reviewed by qualified peers, scientists who are experts in the same field. The scientific review process aims to weed out misinformation, invalid research results, and wild speculation. Thus, it is slow, cautious, and conservative. Scientists tend to wait until a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> is supported by overwhelming amount of evidence from many independent researchers before accepting it as scientific <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-1\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-1\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"1\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"1.1 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3715\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3715\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-24 size-thumbnail\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.1-Did-I-Get-It.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3715\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.1 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><strong>1.2 The Scientific Method<\/strong><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2462\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2462\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/The_Scientific_Method_as_an_Ongoing_Process.svg_-2.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-25 size-medium\" src=\"src\" alt=\"image\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2462\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>], <a href=\"denied:&quot;https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AThe_Scientific_Method_as_an_Ongoing_Process.svg&quot;\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a>\u00a0\u00bb src=\u00a0\u00bbhttps:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/The_Scientific_Method_as_an_Ongoing_Process.svg_-2-300&#215;247.png\u00a0\u00bb alt=\u00a0\u00bbThe diagram is cyclical.\u00a0\u00bb width=\u00a0\u00bb300&Prime; height=\u00a0\u00bb247&Prime;&gt; Diagram of the cyclical nature of the scientific method.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Modern science is based on the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a>, a procedure that follows these steps:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Formulate a question or observe a problem<\/li>\n<li>Apply <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a> experimentation and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1729\">observation<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Analyze collected data and Interpret results<\/li>\n<li>Devise an evidence-based <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Submit findings to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1732\">peer review<\/a> and\/or publication<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This has a long history in human thought but was first fully formed by Ibn al-Haytham over 1,000 years ago. At the forefront of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a> are conclusions based on <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a> evidence, not opinion or hearsay<span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<h4><strong>Step One: Observation, Problem, or Research Question<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>The procedure begins with identifying a problem or research question, such as a geological phenomenon that is not well explained in the scientific community\u2019s collective knowledge. This step usually involves reviewing the scientific literature to understand previous studies that may be related to the question.<\/p>\n<h4><strong>Step Two: Hypothesis<\/strong><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2463\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2463\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-26 size-medium\" title=\"Source: By Eadweard Muybridge, public domain.\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1-300x187.jpg\" alt=\"There are 12 images of the horse, at least one has the legs off the ground.\" width=\"300\" height=\"187\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1-300x187.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1-768x479.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1-65x40.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1-225x140.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1-350x218.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878-1.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2463\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A famous hypothesis: Leland Stanford wanted to know if a horse lifted all 4 legs off the ground during a gallop, since the legs are too fast for the human eye to perceive it. These series of photographs by Eadweard Muybridge proved the horse, in fact, does have all four legs off the ground during the gallop.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Once the problem or question is well defined, the scientist proposes a possible answer, a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a>, before conducting an <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1731\">experiment<\/a> or field work. This <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> must be specific, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1726\">falsifiable<\/a>, and should be based on other scientific work. Geologists often develop multiple working <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypotheses<\/a> because they usually cannot impose strict experimental controls or have limited opportunities to visit a field location.<\/p>\n<h4><strong>Step Three: Experiment and Hypothesis Revision<\/strong><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2464\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2464\" style=\"width: 199px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-27\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1-199x300.jpg\" alt=\"The setup is like an hourglass, and the black pitch sits in it\" width=\"199\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1-199x300.jpg 199w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1-680x1024.jpg 680w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1-768x1156.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1-65x98.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1-225x339.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1-350x527.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1.jpg 795w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 199px) 100vw, 199px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2464\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">An experiment at the University of Queensland has been going since 1927. A petroleum product called pitch, which is highly viscous, drips out of a funnel about once per decade.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The next step is developing an <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1731\">experiment<\/a> that either supports or refutes the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a>. Many people mistakenly think experiments are only done in a lab; however, an <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1731\">experiment<\/a> can consist of observing natural processes in the field. Regardless of what form an <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1731\">experiment<\/a> takes, it always includes the systematic gathering of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a> data. This data is interpreted to determine whether it contradicts or supports the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a>, which may be revised and tested again. When a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> holds up under experimentation, it is ready to be shared with other experts in the field.<\/p>\n<h4><strong>Step Four: Peer Review, Publication, and Replication<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Scientists share the results of their research by publishing articles in scientific journals, such as <em>Science<\/em> and <em>Nature<\/em>. Reputable journals and publishing houses will not publish an experimental study until they have determined its methods are scientifically rigorous and the conclusions are supported by evidence. Before an article is published, it undergoes a rigorous <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1732\">peer review<\/a> by scientific experts who scrutinize the methods, results, and discussion. Once an article is published, other scientists may attempt to replicate the results. This replication is necessary to confirm the reliability of the study\u2019s reported results. A <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> that seemed compelling in one study might be proven false in studies conducted by other scientists. New technology can be applied to published studies, which can aid in confirming or rejecting once-accepted ideas and\/or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypotheses<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h4><strong>Step Five: Theory Development<\/strong><\/h4>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2500\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2500\" style=\"width: 195px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30-2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-28\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30-2.jpg\" alt=\"He is a male in a suit.\" width=\"195\" height=\"240\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30-2.jpg 195w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30-2-65x80.jpg 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 195px) 100vw, 195px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2500\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Wegener later in his life, ca. 1924-1930.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In casual conversation, the word <em><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a><\/em> implies guesswork or speculation. In the language of science, an explanation or conclusion made in a <em><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a><\/em> carries much more weight because it is supported by experimental verification and widely accepted by the scientific community. After a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> has been repeatedly tested for falsifiability through documented and independent studies, it eventually becomes accepted as a scientific <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>While a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> provides a tentative explanation <em>before <\/em>an <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1731\">experiment<\/a>, a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> is the best explanation <em>after <\/em>being confirmed by multiple independent experiments. Confirmation of a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> may take years, or even longer. For example, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1653\">continental<\/a> drift <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> first proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 was initially dismissed. After decades of additional evidence collection by other scientists using more advanced technology, Wegener\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a> was accepted and revised as the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">plate tectonics<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> of evolution by natural selection is another example. Originating from the work of Charles Darwin in the mid-19th century, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> of evolution has withstood generations of scientific testing for falsifiability. While it has been updated and revised to accommodate knowledge gained by using modern technologies, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> of evolution continues to be supported by the latest evidence.<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-2\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-2\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"2\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"1.2 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3714\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3714\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-29 size-thumbnail\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.2-Did-I-Get-It.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3714\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.2 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2>1.3 Early Scientific Thought<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2466\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2466\" style=\"width: 229px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-30 size-medium\" title=\"Source: &quot;School of Athens&quot; by Raphael Date1509 Medium fresco\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1-229x300.jpg\" alt=\"The image is a likeness\" width=\"229\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1-229x300.jpg 229w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1-783x1024.jpg 783w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1-768x1005.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1-65x85.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1-225x294.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1-350x458.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle-1.jpg 804w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 229px) 100vw, 229px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2466\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fresco by Raphael of Plato (left) and Aristotle (right).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Western scientific thought began in the ancient city of Athens, Greece. Athens was governed as a democracy, which encouraged individuals to think independently, at a time when most civilizations were ruled by monarchies or military conquerors. Foremost among the early philosopher\/scientists to use empirical thinking was Aristotle, born in 384 BCE. Empiricism emphasizes the value of evidence gained from experimentation and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1729\">observation<\/a>. Aristotle studied under Plato and tutored Alexander the Great. Alexander would later conquer the Persian Empire, and in the process spread Greek culture as far east as India.<\/p>\n<p>Aristotle applied an empirical method of analysis called <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1734\">deductive reasoning<\/a>, which applies known principles of thought to establish new ideas or predict new outcomes. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1734\">Deductive reasoning<\/a> starts with generalized principles and logically extends them to new ideas or specific conclusions. If the initial principle is valid, then it is highly likely the conclusion is also valid. An example of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1734\">deductive reasoning<\/a> is if A=B, and B=C, then A=C. Another example is if all birds have feathers, and a sparrow is a bird, then a sparrow must also have feathers. The problem with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1734\">deductive reasoning<\/a> is if the initial principle is flawed, the conclusion will inherit that flaw. Here is an example of a flawed initial principle leading to the wrong conclusion; if all animals that fly are birds, and bats also fly, then bats must also be birds.<\/p>\n<p>This type of empirical thinking contrasts with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1735\">inductive reasoning<\/a>, which begins from new observations and attempts to discern underlying generalized principles. A conclusion made through <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1735\">inductive reasoning<\/a> comes from analyzing measurable evidence, rather making a logical connection. For example, to determine whether bats are birds a scientist might list various characteristics observed in birds\u2013the presence of feathers, a toothless beak, hollow bones, lack of forelegs, and externally laid eggs. Next, the scientist would check whether bats share the same characteristics, and if they do not, draw the conclusion that bats are not birds.<\/p>\n<p>Both types of reasoning are important in science because they emphasize the two most important aspects of science: <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1729\">observation<\/a> and inference. Scientists test existing principles to see if they accurately infer or predict their observations. They also analyze new observations to determine if the inferred underlying principles still support them.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2467\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2467\" style=\"width: 193px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Avicenna-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-31 size-medium\" title=\"Source: \u2018Subtilties of Truth\u2019, 1271\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Avicenna-1-193x300.jpg\" alt=\"The drawing is black and white of a man\" width=\"193\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Avicenna-1-193x300.jpg 193w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Avicenna-1-65x101.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Avicenna-1-225x349.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Avicenna-1.jpg 301w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 193px) 100vw, 193px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2467\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">1271 drawing of Avicenna (Ibn Sina). He is among the first to link\u00a0mountains to earthquakes and erosion.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Greek culture was spread by Alexander and then absorbed by the Romans, who help further extend Greek knowledge into Europe through their vast infrastructure of roads, bridges, and aqueducts. After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE, scientific progress in Europe stalled. Scientific thinkers of medieval time had such high regard for Aristotle\u2019s wisdom and knowledge they faithfully followed his logical approach to understanding nature for centuries. By contrast, science in the Middle East flourished and grew between 800 and 1450 CE, along with culture and the arts.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of the medieval <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1244\">period<\/a>, empirical experimentation became more common in Europe. During the Renaissance, which lasted from the 14<sup>th<\/sup> through 17<sup>th<\/sup> centuries, artistic and scientific thought experienced a great awakening. European scholars began to criticize the traditional Aristotelian approach and by the end of the Renaissance <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1244\">period<\/a>, empiricism was poised to become a key component of the scientific revolution that would arise in the 17<sup>th<\/sup> century.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2468\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2468\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-32 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Cosmographia, Bartolomeu Velho, 1568\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1-300x221.jpg\" alt=\"Earth is at the center.\" width=\"300\" height=\"221\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1-300x221.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1-1024x756.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1-768x567.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1-1536x1134.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1-65x48.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1-225x166.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1-350x258.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568-1.jpg 1599w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2468\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Geocentric drawing by Bartolomeu Velho in 1568<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>An early example of how Renaissance scientists began to apply a modern empirical approach is their study of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1253\">solar system<\/a>. In the second century, the Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy observed the Sun, Moon, and stars moving across the sky. Applying Aristotelian logic to his astronomical calculations, he deductively reasoned all celestial bodies orbited around the Earth, which was located at the center of the universe. Ptolemy was a highly regarded mathematician, and his mathematical calculations were widely accepted by the scientific community.\u00a0 The view of the cosmos with Earth at its center is called the geocentric model. This geocentric model persisted until the Renaissance <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1244\">period<\/a>, when some revolutionary thinkers challenged the centuries-old <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1730\">hypothesis<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>By contrast, early Renaissance scholars such as astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed an alternative explanation for the perceived movement of the Sun, Moon, and stars. Sometime between 1507 and 1515, he provided credible mathematical proof for a radically new model of the cosmos, one in which the Earth and other planets orbited around a centrally located Sun. After the invention of the telescope in 1608, scientists used their enhanced astronomical observations to support this heliocentric, Sun-centered, model.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2470\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2470\" style=\"width: 210px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Galileo_manuscript-1.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-33 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Letter by Galileo, 1609.\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Galileo_manuscript-1-210x300.png\" alt=\"This is a manuscript showing 4 moons of Jupiter.\" width=\"210\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Galileo_manuscript-1-210x300.png 210w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Galileo_manuscript-1-65x93.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Galileo_manuscript-1-225x321.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Galileo_manuscript-1-350x500.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Galileo_manuscript-1.png 569w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 210px) 100vw, 210px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2470\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Galileo&rsquo;s first mention of moons of Jupiter.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2469\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2469\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-34 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Nicolaus Copernicus' &quot;De revolutionibus orbium coelestium&quot; 1543\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1-300x275.jpg\" alt=\"The sun is in the center\" width=\"300\" height=\"275\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1-300x275.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1-768x703.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1-65x60.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1-225x206.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1-350x321.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2-1.jpg 809w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2469\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Copernicus&rsquo; heliocentric model<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Two scientists, Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, are credited with jump-starting the scientific revolution. They accomplished this by building on Copernicus work and challenging long-established ideas about nature and science.<\/p>\n<p>Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was a German mathematician and astronomer who expanded on the heliocentric model\u2014improving Copernicus\u2019 original calculations and describing planetary motion as elliptical paths. Galileo Galilei (1564 \u2013 1642) was an Italian astronomer who used the newly developed telescope to observe the four largest moons of Jupiter. This was the first piece of direct evidence to contradict the geocentric model, since moons orbiting Jupiter could not also be orbiting Earth.<\/p>\n<p>Galileo strongly supported the heliocentric model and attacked the geocentric model, arguing for a more scientific approach to determine the credibility of an idea. Because of this he found himself at odds with prevailing scientific views and the Catholic Church. In 1633 he was found guilty of heresy and placed under house arrest, where he would remain until his death in 1642.<\/p>\n<p>Galileo is regarded as the first modern scientist because he conducted experiments that would prove or disprove <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1726\">falsifiable<\/a> ideas and based his conclusions on mathematical analysis of quantifiable evidence\u2014a radical departure from the deductive thinking of Greek philosophers such as Aristotle . His methods marked the beginning of a major shift in how scientists studied the natural world, with an increasing number of them relying on evidence and experimentation to form their hypotheses. It was during this revolutionary time that geologists such as James Hutton and Nicolas Steno also made great advances in their scientific fields of study.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-3\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-3\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"3\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"1.3 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3713\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3713\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-35 size-thumbnail\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.3-Did-I-Get-It.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3713\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.3 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2>1.4 Foundations of Modern Geology<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2471\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2471\" style=\"width: 199px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Stenoshark-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-36 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Nicolas Steno's Elementorum myologi\u00e6 specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometrica : cui accedunt Canis Carchari\u00e6 dissectum caput, et dissectus piscis ex Canum genere, 1667\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Stenoshark-1-199x300.jpg\" alt=\"It shows a shark mouth and several teeth\" width=\"199\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Stenoshark-1-199x300.jpg 199w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Stenoshark-1-65x98.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Stenoshark-1-225x339.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Stenoshark-1.jpg 313w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 199px) 100vw, 199px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2471\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Illustration by Steno showing a comparison between fossil and modern shark teeth.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>As part of the scientific revolution in Europe, modern geologic principles developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. One major contributor was Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686), a Danish priest who studied anatomy and geology. Steno was the first to propose the Earth\u2019s surface could change over time. He suggested sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone and shale, originally formed in horizontal layers with the oldest on the bottom and progressively younger layers on top.<\/p>\n<p>In the 18th century, Scottish naturalist James Hutton (1726\u20131797) studied rivers and coastlines and compared the sediments they left behind to exposed sedimentary rock strata. He hypothesized the ancient rocks must have been formed by processes like those producing the features in the oceans and streams. Hutton also proposed the Earth was much older than previously thought. Modern geologic processes operate slowly. Hutton realized if these processes formed rocks, then the Earth must be very old, possibly hundreds of millions of years old.<\/p>\n<p>Hutton\u2019s idea is called the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">principle of uniformitarianism<\/a> and states that natural processes operate the same now as in the past, i.e. the laws of nature are uniform across space and time. Geologist often state \u201cthe present is the key to the past,\u201d meaning they can understand ancient rocks by studying modern geologic processes.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2472\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2472\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-37 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Cuvier, 1799\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1-300x230.jpg\" alt=\"It shows two views of each jaw.\" width=\"300\" height=\"230\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1-300x230.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1-1024x784.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1-768x588.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1-1536x1176.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1-65x50.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1-225x172.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1-350x268.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cuvier_elephant_jaw-1.jpg 1566w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2472\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cuvier&rsquo;s comparison of modern elephant and mammoth jaw bones.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Prior to the acceptance of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">uniformitarianism<\/a>, scientists such as German geologist Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750-1817) and French anatomist Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) thought rocks and landforms were formed by great catastrophic events. Cuvier championed this view, known as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1737\">catastrophism<\/a>, and stated, \u201cThe thread of operation is broken; nature has changed course, and none of the agents she employs today would have been sufficient to produce her former works.\u201d He meant processes that operate today did not operate in the past. Known as the father of vertebrate paleontology, Cuvier made significant contributions to the study of ancient life and taught at Paris\u2019s Museum of Natural History. Based on his study of large vertebrate <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1228\">fossils<\/a>, he was the first to suggest species could go <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_755\">extinct<\/a>. However, he thought new species were introduced by special creation after catastrophic floods.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2492\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2492\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-38 size-medium\" title=\"Source: Charles Lyell, Elements of Geology (second American edition, 1857)\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1.jpg\" alt=\"It shows a rudimentary cross section\" width=\"300\" height=\"191\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1.jpg 1600w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1-300x191.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1-1024x652.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1-768x489.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1-1536x977.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1-65x41.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1-225x143.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Lyell_Principles_frontispiece-1-350x223.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2492\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Inside cover\u00a0of Lyell&rsquo;s Elements of Geology<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Hutton\u2019s ideas about <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">uniformitarianism<\/a> and Earth\u2019s age were not well received by the scientific community of his time. His ideas were falling into obscurity when Charles Lyell, a British lawyer and geologist (1797-1875), wrote the <em>Principles of Geology <\/em>in the early 1830s and later, <em><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1778\">Elements<\/a>\u00a0of Geology<\/em>. Lyell\u2019s books promoted Hutton\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">principle of uniformitarianism<\/a>, his studies of rocks and the processes that formed them, and the idea that Earth was possibly over 300 million years old. Lyell and his three-volume <em>Principles of Geology<\/em> had a lasting influence on the geologic community and public at large, who eventually accepted <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">uniformitarianism<\/a> and millionfold age for the Earth. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">principle of uniformitarianism<\/a> became so widely accepted, that geologists regarded catastrophic change as heresy. This made it harder for ideas like the sudden demise of the dinosaurs by asteroid impact to gain traction.<\/p>\n<p>A contemporary of Lyell, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) took <em>Principles of Geology<\/em> on his five-year trip on the HMS Beagle. Darwin used <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">uniformitarianism<\/a> and deep geologic time to develop his initial ideas about evolution. Lyell was one of the first to publish a reference to Darwin\u2019s idea of evolution.<\/p>\n<p>The next big advancement, and perhaps the largest in the history of geology, is the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">plate tectonics<\/a> and continental drift. Dogmatic acceptance of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1736\">uniformitarianism<\/a> inhibited the progress of this idea, mainly because of the permanency placed on the continents and their positions. Ironically, slow and steady movement of plates would fit well into a uniformitarianism model. However, much time passed and a great deal of scientific resistance had to be overcome before the idea took hold. This happened for several reasons. Firstly, the movement was so slow it was overlooked. Secondly, the best evidence was hidden under the ocean. Finally, the accepted theories were anchored by a large amount of inertia. Instead of being bias free, scientists resisted and ridiculed the emerging idea of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">plate tectonics<\/a>. This example of dogmatic thinking is still to this day a tarnish on the geoscience community.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2511\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2511\" style=\"width: 244px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992-2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-39\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992-2-244x300.jpg\" alt=\"He is an older man in this 1992 image.\" width=\"244\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992-2-244x300.jpg 244w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992-2-65x80.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992-2-225x277.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992-2-350x431.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992-2.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 244px) 100vw, 244px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2511\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">J. Tuzo Wilson<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">Plate tectonics<\/a> is most commonly attributed to Alfred Wegener, the first scientist to compile a large data set supporting the idea of continents shifting places over time. He was mostly ignored and ridiculed for his ideas, but later workers like Marie Tharp, Bruce Heezen, Harry Hess, Laurence Morley, Frederick Vine, Drummond Matthews, Kiyoo Wadati, Hugo Benioff, Robert Coats, and J. Tuzo Wilson benefited from advances in sub-sea technologies. They discovered, described, and analyzed new features like the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1708\">mid-ocean ridge<\/a>, alignment of earthquakes, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1709\">magnetic striping<\/a>. Gradually these scientists introduced a paradigm shift that revolutionized geology into the science we know today.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-4\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-4\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"4\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"1.4 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3712\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3712\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-40 size-thumbnail\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4-Did-I-Get-It.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3712\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.4 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1.5 The Study of Geology<br \/>\n<\/span><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2475\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2475\" style=\"width: 225px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/DSC00832-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-41 size-medium\" title=\"By Mason Chuang\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DSC00832-1-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"The students are on the red rock\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DSC00832-1-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DSC00832-1-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DSC00832-1-65x87.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DSC00832-1-350x467.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/DSC00832-1.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2475\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A class looks at rocks in Zion National Park.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Geologists apply the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a> to learn about Earth\u2019s materials and processes. Geology plays an important role in society; its principles are essential to locating, extracting, and managing <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1738\">natural resources<\/a>; evaluating environmental impacts of using or extracting these resources; as well as understanding and mitigating the effects of natural hazards.<\/p>\n<p>Geology often applies information from physics and chemistry to the natural world, like understanding the physical forces in a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_246\">landslide<\/a> or the chemical interaction between water and rocks. The term comes from the Greek word <em>geo<\/em>, meaning Earth, and <em>logos<\/em>, meaning to think or reckon with.<\/p>\n<h3>1.5.1 Why Study Geology?<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2476\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2476\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-42\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-1-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The dam has a large lake behind it\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-1-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-1-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-1-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-1-350x234.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.1_Hoover_Dam_Colorado_River-1.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2476\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hoover Dam provides hydroelectric energy and stores water for southern Nevada.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Geology plays a key role in how we use <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1738\">natural resources<\/a>\u2014any naturally occurring material that can be extracted from the Earth for economic gain. Our developed modern society, like all societies before it, is dependent on geologic resources. Geologists are involved in extracting fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum; metals such as copper, aluminum, and iron; and water resources in streams and underground reservoirs inside <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_250\">soil<\/a> and rocks. They can help conserve our planet\u2019s finite supply of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1739\">nonrenewable<\/a> resources, like petroleum, which are fixed in quantity and depleted by consumption. Geologists can also help manage <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1740\">renewable<\/a> resources that can be replaced or regenerated, such as solar or wind energy, and timber.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2477\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2477\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-43\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-1-300x188.jpg\" alt=\"The power plant has smoke coming from it\" width=\"300\" height=\"188\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-1-300x188.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-1-65x41.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-1-225x141.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-1-350x220.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant_Utah_2007-1.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2477\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Coal power plant in Helper, Utah.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Resource extraction and usage impacts our environment, which can negatively affect human health. For example, burning fossil fuels\u00a0releases chemicals into the air that are unhealthy for humans, especially children. Mining activities can release toxic heavy metals, such as lead and mercury, into the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_250\">soil<\/a> and waterways. Our choices will have an effect on Earth\u2019s environment for the foreseeable future. Understanding the remaining quantity, extractability, and renewability of geologic resources will help us better sustainably manage those resources.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2478\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2478\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Liquefaction_at_Niigata-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-44\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Liquefaction_at_Niigata-1-300x178.jpg\" alt=\"Buildings toppled from liquefaction during a 7.5 magnitude earthquake in Japan.\" width=\"300\" height=\"178\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Liquefaction_at_Niigata-1-300x178.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Liquefaction_at_Niigata-1-65x39.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Liquefaction_at_Niigata-1-225x134.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Liquefaction_at_Niigata-1-350x208.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Liquefaction_at_Niigata-1.jpg 500w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2478\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Buildings toppled from liquefaction during a 7.5 magnitude earthquake in Japan.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Geologists also study natural hazards created by geologic processes. Natural hazards are phenomena that are potentially dangerous to human life or property. No place on Earth is completely free of natural hazards, so one of the best ways people can protect themselves is by understanding geology. Geology can teach people about the natural hazards in an area and how to prepare for them. Geologic hazards include <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_246\">landslides<\/a>, earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_228\">volcanic<\/a> eruptions, and sea-level rise.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2479\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2479\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Crater_lake_oregon-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-45 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Crater_lake_oregon-1-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"The mountain has a large hole in the center that is filled with the lake.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Crater_lake_oregon-1-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Crater_lake_oregon-1-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Crater_lake_oregon-1-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Crater_lake_oregon-1-350x233.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Crater_lake_oregon-1.jpg 623w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2479\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Oregon&rsquo;s Crater Lake was formed about 7700 years ago after the eruption of Mount Mazama.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Finally, geology is where other scientific disciplines intersect in the concept known as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1748\">Earth System Science<\/a>. In science, a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1742\">system<\/a> is a group of interactive objects and processes. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1748\">Earth System Science<\/a> views the entire planet as a combination of systems that interact with each other via complex relationships. This geology textbook provides an introduction to science in general and will often reference other scientific disciplines.<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1748\">Earth System Science<\/a> includes five basic systems (or spheres), the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1743\">Geosphere<\/a> (the solid body of the Earth), the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1745\">Atmosphere<\/a> (the gas envelope surrounding the Earth), the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1744\">Hydrosphere<\/a> (water in all its forms at and near the surface of the Earth), the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1746\">Cryosphere<\/a> (frozen water part of Earth), and the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1747\">Biosphere<\/a> (life on Earth in all its forms and interactions, including humankind).<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Rather than viewing geology as an isolated <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1742\">system<\/a>, earth <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1742\">system<\/a> scientists study how geologic processes shape not only the world, but all the spheres it contains. They study how these multidisciplinary spheres relate, interact, and change in response to natural cycles and human-driven forces. They use <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1778\">elements<\/a>\u00a0from physics, chemistry, biology, meteorology, environmental science, zoology, hydrology, and many other sciences.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><b>1.5.2 Rock Cycle<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2480\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2480\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Fig-6-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-46\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Fig-6-1-300x278.jpg\" alt=\"The rock cycle shows how different rock groups are interconnected. Metamorphic rocks can come from adding heat and\/or pressure to other metamorphic rock or sedimentary or igneous rocks\" width=\"300\" height=\"278\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Fig-6-1-300x278.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Fig-6-1-768x713.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Fig-6-1-65x60.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Fig-6-1-225x209.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Fig-6-1-350x325.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Fig-6-1.jpg 900w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2480\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Rock cycle showing the five materials (such as igneous rocks and sediment) and the processes by which one changes into another (such as weathering). (Source: Peter Davis)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The most fundamental view of Earth materials is the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1749\">rock cycle<\/a>, which describes the major materials that comprise the Earth, the processes that form them, and how they relate to each other. It usually begins with hot molten liquid rock called <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1750\">magma<\/a> or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1751\">lava<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1750\">Magma<\/a> forms under the Earth\u2019s surface in the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1658\">crust<\/a> or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1664\">mantle<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1751\">Lava<\/a> is molten rock that erupts onto the Earth\u2019s surface. When <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1750\">magma<\/a> or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1751\">lava<\/a> cools, it solidifies by a process called <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1752\">crystallization<\/a> in which minerals grow within the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1750\">magma<\/a> or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1751\">lava<\/a>. The rocks resulting rocks are igneous rocks. I<em>gnis<\/em> is Latin for fire.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2481\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2481\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Raindrop_impressions_mcr1-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-47\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Raindrop_impressions_mcr1-1-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"This grey rock has round circles left by raindrops\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Raindrop_impressions_mcr1-1-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Raindrop_impressions_mcr1-1-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Raindrop_impressions_mcr1-1-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Raindrop_impressions_mcr1-1-350x234.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Raindrop_impressions_mcr1-1.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2481\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mississippian raindrop impressions over wave ripples from Nova Scotia.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Igneous rocks, as well as other types of rocks, on Earth\u2019s surface are exposed to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1754\">weathering<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1755\">erosion<\/a>, which produces <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1756\">sediments<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1754\">Weathering<\/a> is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1755\">Erosion<\/a> is the removal of those fragments from their original location. The broken-down and transported fragments or grains are considered <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1756\">sediments<\/a>, such as gravel, sand, silt, and clay. These <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1756\">sediments<\/a> may be transported by streams and rivers, ocean currents, glaciers, and wind.<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1756\">Sediments<\/a> come to rest in a process known as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1757\">deposition<\/a>. As the deposited <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1756\">sediments<\/a> accumulate\u2014often under water, such as in a shallow marine environment\u2014the older <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1756\">sediments<\/a> get buried by the new deposits. The deposits are compacted by the weight of the overlying <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1756\">sediments<\/a> and individual grains are cemented together by minerals in groundwater. These processes of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1758\">compaction<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1759\">cementation<\/a> are called <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1760\">lithification<\/a>. Lithified <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1756\">sediments<\/a> are considered a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1761\">sedimentary rock<\/a>, such as sandstone and shale. Other sedimentary rocks are made by direct chemical <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1785\">precipitation<\/a> of minerals rather than eroded <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1756\">sediments<\/a>, and are known as chemical sedimentary rocks.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2482\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2482\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-48 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Swirling bands of light and dark minerals.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1-350x263.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/06.2-15-Mt-Blaca-Migmatite-1.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2482\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Migmatite, a rock which was partially molten. (Source: Peter Davis)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Pre-existing rocks may be transformed into a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1762\">metamorphic rock<\/a>; <em>meta- <\/em>means change and <em>-morphos<\/em> means form or shape. When rocks are subjected to extreme increases in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1767\">temperature<\/a> or pressure, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1765\">mineral<\/a> crystals are enlarged or altered into entirely new minerals\u00a0with similar chemical make up. High temperatures and pressures occur in rocks buried deep within the Earth\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1658\">crust<\/a> or that come into contact with hot <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1750\">magma<\/a> or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1751\">lava<\/a>. If the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1767\">temperature<\/a> and pressure conditions melt the rocks to create <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1750\">magma<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1751\">lava<\/a>, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1749\">rock cycle<\/a> begins anew with the creation of new rocks.<\/p>\n<h3><b>1.5.3 Plate Tectonics and Layers of Earth<\/b><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2516\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2516\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-49\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2-300x205.png\" alt=\"There are about 10 major plates\" width=\"300\" height=\"205\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2-300x205.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2-1024x699.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2-768x524.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2-1536x1049.png 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2-65x44.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2-225x154.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2-350x239.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Plates_tect2_en.svg_-2.png 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2516\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of the major plates and their motions along boundaries.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> of <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">plate tectonics<\/a><\/strong> is the fundamental unifying principle of geology and the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1749\">rock cycle<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">Plate tectonics<\/a> describes how Earth\u2019s layers move relative to each other, focusing on the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">tectonic<\/a> or lithospheric <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1669\">plates<\/a> of the outer layer. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">Tectonic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1669\">plates<\/a>\u00a0float, collide, slide past each other, and split apart on an underlying mobile layer called the <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1671\">asthenosphere<\/a><\/strong>. Major landforms are created at the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1669\">plate<\/a> boundaries, and rocks within the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">tectonic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1669\">plates<\/a> move through the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1749\">rock cycle<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">Plate tectonics<\/a> is discussed in more detail in <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/2-plate-tectonics\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Chapter 2<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2513\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2513\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/MohoDepth-1.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-50 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1-300x167.png\" alt=\"Places with mountain building have a deeper moho.\" width=\"300\" height=\"167\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1-300x167.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1-1024x568.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1-768x426.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1-1536x852.png 1536w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1-65x36.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1-225x125.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1-350x194.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MohoDepth-1.png 1600w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2513\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The global map of the depth of the moho.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Earth\u2019s three main geological layers can be categorized by chemical composition or the chemical makeup: <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1658\">crust<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1664\">mantle<\/a>, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1667\">core<\/a>. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1658\">crust<\/a> is the outermost layer and composed\u00a0of mostly silicon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, and magnesium. There are two types, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1653\">continental crust<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1659\">oceanic crust<\/a>. <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1653\">Continental crust<\/a><\/strong> is about 50 km (30 mi) thick, composed of low-density igneous and sedimentary rocks, <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1659\">Oceanic crust<\/a><\/strong> is approximately 10 km (6 mi) thick and made of high-density igneous <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1013\">basalt<\/a>-type rocks. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1659\">Oceanic crust<\/a> makes up most of the ocean floor, covering about 70% of the planet. Tectonic <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1669\">plates<\/a>\u00a0are made of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1658\">crust<\/a> and a portion the upper <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1664\">mantle<\/a>, forming a rigid physical layer called the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1668\">lithosphere<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2512\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2512\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg_-1.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-51\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg_-1-300x211.png\" alt=\"The crust and lithosphere are on the outside of the Earth and are thin. Below the crust is the mantle and core. Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere.\" width=\"300\" height=\"211\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg_-1-300x211.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg_-1-65x46.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg_-1-225x158.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg_-1-350x246.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg_-1.png 640w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2512\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The layers of the Earth. Physical layers include lithosphere and asthenosphere; chemical layers are crust, mantle, and core.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1664\">mantle<\/a><\/strong>, the largest chemical layer by volume, lies below the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1658\">crust<\/a> and extends down to about 2,900 km (1,800 mi) below the Earth\u2019s surface. The mostly solid <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1664\">mantle<\/a> is made of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1666\">peridotite<\/a>, a high-density composed of silica, iron, and magnesium. The upper part of mantel is very hot and flexible, which allows the overlying tectonic <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1669\">plates<\/a> to float and move about on it. Under the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1664\">mantle<\/a> is the Earth\u2019s <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1667\">core<\/a>, which is 3,500 km (2,200 mi) thick and made of iron and nickel. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1667\">core<\/a> consists of two parts, a liquid <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1673\">outer core<\/a><\/strong> and solid <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1674\">inner core<\/a><\/strong>. Rotations within the solid and liquid metallic <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1667\">core<\/a> generate Earth\u2019s magnetic field (see figure).<\/p>\n<h3><b>1.5.4 Geologic Time and Deep Time<\/b><\/h3>\n<blockquote>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2486\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2486\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/GeologicClock.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-52\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GeologicClock-300x288.png\" alt=\"The circle starts at 4.6 billion years ago, then loops around to zero.\" width=\"300\" height=\"288\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GeologicClock-300x288.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GeologicClock-768x736.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GeologicClock-65x62.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GeologicClock-225x216.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GeologicClock-350x336.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GeologicClock.png 801w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2486\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Geologic time on Earth, represented circularly, to show the individual time divisions and important events. Ga=billion years ago, Ma=million years ago.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>\u201cThe result, therefore, of our present enquiry is, that we find no vestige of a beginning; no prospect of an end.\u201d (James Hutton, 1788)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>One of the early pioneers of geology, James Hutton, wrote this about the age of the Earth after many years of geological study. Although he wasn\u2019t exactly correct\u2014there is a beginning and will be an end to planet Earth\u2014Hutton was expressing the difficulty humans have in perceiving the vastness of geological time. Hutton did not assign an age to the Earth, although he was the first to suggest the planet was very old.<br \/>\nToday we know Earth is approximately 4.54 \u00b1 0.05 billion years old. This age was first calculated by Caltech professor Clair Patterson in 1956, who measured the half-lives of lead <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1779\">isotopes<\/a>\u00a0to radiometrically date a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1254\">meteorite<\/a> recovered in Arizona. Studying geologic time, also known as deep time, can help us overcome a perspective of Earth that is limited to our short lifetimes. Compared to the geologic scale, the human lifespan is very short, and we struggle to comprehend the depth of geologic time and slowness of geologic processes. For example, the study of earthquakes only goes back about 100 years; however, there is geologic evidence of large earthquakes occurring thousands of years ago. And scientific evidence indicates earthquakes will continue for many centuries into the future.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2492\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2492\" style=\"width: 793px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/opengeology.org\/textbook\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/07\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-53 size-large\" title=\"Source: Belinda Madsen, Salt Lake Community College\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1-793x1024.jpg\" alt=\"The Geologic Time Scale with an age of each unit shown by a scale\" width=\"793\" height=\"1024\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1-793x1024.jpg 793w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1-232x300.jpg 232w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1-768x992.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1-65x84.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1-225x291.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1-350x452.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years-1.jpg 854w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 793px) 100vw, 793px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2492\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Geologic time scale showing time period names and ages. (Source: Belinda Madsen)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1242\">Eons<\/a>\u00a0are the largest divisions of time, and from oldest to youngest are named <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1255\">Hadean<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1257\">Archean<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1261\">Proterozoic<\/a>, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1269\">Phanerozoic<\/a>. The three oldest <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1242\">eons<\/a> are sometimes collectively referred to as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1270\">Precambrian<\/a> time.<\/p>\n<p>Life first appeared more than 3,800 million of years ago (Ma). From 3,500 Ma to 542 Ma, or 88% of geologic time, the predominant life forms were single-celled organisms such as bacteria. More complex organisms appeared only more recently, during the current <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1269\">Phanerozoic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1242\">Eon<\/a>, which includes the last 542 million years or 12% of geologic time.<\/p>\n<p>The name <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1269\">Phanerozoic<\/a> comes from <em>phaneros<\/em>, which means visible, and <em>zoic<\/em>, meaning life. This <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1242\">eon<\/a> marks the proliferation of multicellular animals with hard body parts, such as shells, which are preserved in the geological record as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1228\">fossils<\/a>. Land-dwelling animals have existed for 360 million years, or 8% of geologic time. The demise of the dinosaurs and subsequent rise of mammals occurred around 65 Ma, or 1.5% of geologic time. Our human ancestors belonging to the genus <em>Homo<\/em> have existed since approximately 2.2 Ma\u20140.05% of geological time or just 1\/2,000th the total age of Earth.<\/p>\n<p>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1269\">Phanerozoic<\/a> <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1242\">Eon<\/a> is divided into three <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1243\">eras<\/a>: <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1271\">Paleozoic<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_479\">Mesozoic<\/a>, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_488\">Cenozoic<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1271\">Paleozoic<\/a> means <em>ancient life<\/em>, and organisms of this era included invertebrate animals, fish, amphibians, and reptiles. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_479\">Mesozoic<\/a> (<em>middle life<\/em>) is popularly known as the Age of Reptiles and is characterized by the abundance of dinosaurs, many of which evolved into birds. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1275\">mass extinction<\/a> of the dinosaurs and other apex predator reptiles marked the end of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_479\">Mesozoic<\/a> and beginning of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_488\">Cenozoic<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_488\">Cenozoic<\/a> means <em>new life<\/em> and is also called the Age of Mammals, during which mammals evolved to become the predominant land-dwelling animals. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1228\">Fossils<\/a>\u00a0of early humans, or hominids, appear in the rock record only during the last few million years of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_488\">Cenozoic<\/a>. The geologic time scale, geologic time, and geologic history are discussed in more detail in\u00a0chapters <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/7-geologic-time\/\">7<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/chapter\/8-earth-history\/\">8<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3>1.5.5 \u00a0 The Geologist\u2019s Tools<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2488\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2488\" style=\"width: 222px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-54\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen-222x300.jpg\" alt=\"The fossil has bird and dinosaur features.\" width=\"222\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen-222x300.jpg 222w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen-757x1024.jpg 757w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen-768x1038.jpg 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen-65x88.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen-225x304.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen-350x473.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_Berlin_specimen.jpg 886w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 222px) 100vw, 222px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2488\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Iconic Archaeopteryx lithographica fossil from Germany.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In its simplest form, a geologist\u2019s tool may be a rock hammer used for sampling a fresh surface of a rock. A basic tool set for fieldwork might also include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Magnifying lens for looking at mineralogical details<\/li>\n<li>Compass for measuring the orientation of geologic features<\/li>\n<li>Map for documenting the local distribution of rocks and minerals<\/li>\n<li>Magnet for identifying magnetic minerals like magnetite<\/li>\n<li>Dilute <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1783\">solution<\/a> of hydrochloric acid to identify <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_969\">carbonate<\/a>-containing minerals like <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_970\">calcite<\/a> or limestone.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In the laboratory, geologists use optical microscopes to closely examine rocks and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_250\">soil<\/a> for <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1765\">mineral<\/a> composition and grain size. Laser and mass spectrometers precisely measure the chemical composition and geological age of minerals. Seismographs\u00a0record and locate earthquake activity, or when used in conjunction with ground penetrating radar, locate objects buried beneath the surface of the earth. Scientists apply computer simulations to turn their collected data into testable, theoretical models. Hydrogeologists drill wells to sample and analyze underground water quality and availability. Geochemists use scanning electron microscopes to analyze minerals at the atomic level, via x-rays. Other geologists use gas chromatography to analyze liquids and gases trapped in glacial ice or rocks.<\/p>\n<p>Technology provides new tools for scientific <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1729\">observation<\/a>, which leads to new evidence that helps scientists revise and even refute old ideas. Because the ultimate technology will never be discovered, the ultimate <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1729\">observation<\/a> will never be made. And this is the beauty of science\u2014it is ever-advancing and always discovering something new.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-5\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-5\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"5\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"1.5 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3711\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3711\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-55\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.5-Did-I-Get-It.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3711\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.5 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><strong>1.6 Science Denial and Evaluating Sources<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id='oembed-1' title=\"Science in America - Neil deGrasse Tyson\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/8MqTOEospfo?feature=oembed&rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share\" referrerpolicy=\"strict-origin-when-cross-origin\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3710\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3710\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Science-in-America-YouTube.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-56\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Science-in-America-YouTube.png 1155w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3710\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access this YouTube video via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2489\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2489\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Anti-EvolutionLeague.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-57\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Anti-EvolutionLeague-300x223.jpg\" alt=\"There are several people around a sign\" width=\"300\" height=\"223\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Anti-EvolutionLeague-300x223.jpg 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Anti-EvolutionLeague-65x48.jpg 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Anti-EvolutionLeague-225x167.jpg 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Anti-EvolutionLeague-350x260.jpg 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Anti-EvolutionLeague.jpg 500w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2489\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Anti-evolution league at the infamous Tennessee v. Scopes trial.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Introductory science courses usually deal with accepted scientific <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> and do not include opposing ideas, even though these alternate ideas may be credible. This makes it easier for students to understand the complex material. Advanced students will encounter more controversies as they continue to study their discipline.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Some groups of people argue that some established scientific theories are wrong, not based on their scientific merit but rather on the ideology of the group. This section focuses on how to identify evidence based information and differentiate it from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1727\">pseudoscience<\/a>.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>1.6.1 Science Denial<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2490\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2490\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/MarchForScience2017-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-2490\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/MarchForScience2017-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"There are many people on the steps of the capitol.\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2490\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">2017 March for Science in Salt Lake City. This and other similar marches were in response to funding cuts and anti-science rhetoric.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1763\">Science denial<\/a> happens when people argue that established scientific theories are wrong, not based on scientific merit but rather on <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1723\">subjective<\/a> ideology\u2014such as for social, political, or economic reasons. Organizations and people use <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1763\">science denial<\/a> as a rhetorical argument against issues or ideas they oppose. Three examples of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1763\">science denial<\/a> versus science are: 1) teaching evolution in public schools, 2) linking tobacco smoke to cancer, and 3) linking human activity to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_757\">climate<\/a> change. Among these, denial of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_757\">climate<\/a> change is strongly connected with geology. A <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_757\">climate<\/a> denier specifically denies or doubts the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a> conclusions of geologists and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_757\">climate<\/a> scientists.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2491\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2491\" style=\"width: 263px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/1.4_pillars_Science-Denial_NCSE.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-59\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4_pillars_Science-Denial_NCSE-263x300.png\" alt=\"Shows three pillars labeled &quot;Undermine the Science&quot;, &quot;Claim the Result is Evil&quot;, and &quot;Demand Equal Time&quot;.\" width=\"263\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4_pillars_Science-Denial_NCSE-263x300.png 263w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4_pillars_Science-Denial_NCSE-65x74.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4_pillars_Science-Denial_NCSE-225x257.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4_pillars_Science-Denial_NCSE-350x400.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.4_pillars_Science-Denial_NCSE.png 525w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 263px) 100vw, 263px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2491\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Three false rhetorical arguments of science denial (Source: National Center for Science Education)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1763\">Science denial<\/a> generally uses three false arguments. The first argument tries to undermine the credibility of the scientific conclusion by claiming the research methods are flawed or the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> is not universally accepted\u2014the science is unsettled. The notion that scientific ideas are not absolute creates doubt for non-scientists; however, a lack of universal truths should not be confused with scientific uncertainty. Because science is based on falsfiabiity, scientists avoid claiming universal truths and use language that conveys uncertainty. This allows scientific ideas to change and evolve as more evidence is uncovered.<\/p>\n<p>The second argument claims the researchers are not <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a> and motivated by an ideology or economic agenda. This is an <em>ad hominem<\/em> argument in which a person\u2019s character is attacked instead of the merit of their argument. They claim results have been manipulated so researchers can justify asking for more funding. They claim that because the researchers are funded by a federal grant, they are using their results to lobby for expanded government regulation.<\/p>\n<p>The third argument is to demand a balanced view, equal time in media coverage and educational curricula, to engender the false illusion of two equally valid arguments. Science deniers frequently demand equal coverage of their proposals, even when there is little scientific evidence supporting their ideology. For example, science deniers might demand religious explanations be taught as an alternative to the well-established <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1733\">theory<\/a> of evolution <span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> [zotpressInText item=\u00a0\u00bb{X9U8B54N},{W934C3CR}\u00a0\u00bb format=\u00a0\u00bb%num%\u00a0\u00bb brackets=\u00a0\u00bbyes\u00a0\u00bb]<\/span>. Or that all possible causes of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_757\">climate<\/a> change be discussed as equally probable, regardless of the body of evidence. Conclusions derived using the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a> should not be confused with those based on ideologies.<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, conclusions about nature derived from ideologies have no place in science research and education. For example, it would be inappropriate to teach the flat earth model in a modern geology course because this idea has been disproved by the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a>. Unfortunately, widespread scientific illiteracy allows these arguments to be used to suppress scientific knowledge and spread misinformation.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The formation of new conclusions based on the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a> is the only way to change scientific conclusions. We wouldn&rsquo;t teach Flat Earth geology along with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1654\">plate tectonics<\/a> because Flat Earthers don&rsquo;t follow the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a>. The fact that scientists avoid universal truths and change their ideas as more evidence is uncovered shouldn&rsquo;t be seen as meaning that the science is unsettled. Because of widespread scientific illiteracy, these arguments are used by those who wish to suppress\u00a0science and misinform the general public.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2492\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2492\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg_.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-60 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg_-300x293.png\" alt=\"The lines are similar when comparing smoking and cancer\" width=\"300\" height=\"293\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg_-300x293.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg_-65x63.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg_-225x219.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg_-350x341.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg_.png 652w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2492\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The lag time between cancer after smoking, plus the ethics of running human trials, delayed the government in taking action against tobacco.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In a classic case of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1763\">science denial<\/a>, beginning in the 1960s and for the next three decades, the tobacco industry and their scientists used rhetorical arguments to deny a connection between tobacco usage and cancer. Once it became clear scientific studies overwhelmingly found that using tobacco dramatically increased a person&rsquo;s likelihood of getting cancer, their next strategy was to create a sense of doubt about on the science. The tobacco industry suggested the results were not yet fully understood and more study was needed. They used this doubt to lobby for delaying legislative action that would warn consumers of the potential health hazards <span style=\"font-weight: 400\">[zotpressInText item=\u00a0\u00bb{X9U8B54N},{CBD5438R}\u00a0\u00bb format=\u00a0\u00bb%num%\u00a0\u00bb brackets=\u00a0\u00bbyes\u00a0\u00bb]<\/span>. This same tactic is currently being employed by those who deny the significance of human involvement in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_757\">climate<\/a> change.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>1.6.2 Evaluating Sources of Information<\/strong><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2493\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2493\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-61\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity-300x228.png\" alt=\"There is a large spike in earthquakes\" width=\"300\" height=\"228\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity-300x228.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity-1024x779.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity-768x584.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity-65x49.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity-225x171.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity-350x266.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Cumulative_induced_seismicity.png 1112w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2493\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This graph shows earthquake data. To call this data induced, due to fracking, would be an interpretation.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In the age of the internet, information is plentiful. Geologists, scientists, or anyone exploring scientific inquiry must discern valid sources of information from <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1727\">pseudoscience<\/a> and misinformation. This evaluation is especially important in scientific research because scientific knowledge is respected for its reliability. Textbooks such as this one can aid this complex and crucial task. At its roots, quality information comes from the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a>, beginning with the empirical thinking of Aristotle. The application of the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a> helps produce unbiased results. A valid inference or interpretation is based on <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a> evidence or data. Credible data and inferences are clearly labeled, separated, and differentiated. Anyone looking over the data can understand how the author\u2019s conclusion was derived or come to an alternative conclusion. Scientific procedures are clearly defined so the investigation can be replicated to confirm the original results or expanded further to produce new results. These measures make a scientific inquiry valid and its use as a source reputable. Of course, substandard work occasionally slips through and retractions are published from time to time. An infamous article linking the MMR vaccine to autism appeared in the highly reputable journal <em>Lancet<\/em> in 1998. Journalists discovered the author had multiple conflicts of interest and fabricated data, and the article was retracted in 2010.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2494\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2494\" style=\"width: 100px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/09\/GSA_logo3R_web100.gif\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-62 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GSA_logo3R_web100.gif\" alt=\"\" width=\"100\" height=\"111\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GSA_logo3R_web100.gif 100w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/GSA_logo3R_web100-65x72.gif 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 100px) 100vw, 100px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2494\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Logo for The Geological Society of America, one of the leading geoscience organizations. They also publish GSA Bulletin, a reputable geology journal.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In addition to methodology, data, and results, the authors of a study should be investigated. When looking into any research, the author(s) should be investigated. An author\u2019s credibility is based on multiple factors, such as having a degree in a relevant topic or being funded from an unbiased source.<\/p>\n<p>The same rigor should be applied to evaluating the publisher, ensuring the results reported come from an unbiased process. The publisher should be easy to discover. Good publishers will show the latest papers in the journal and make their contact information and identification clear.\u00a0 Reputable journals show their <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1732\">peer review<\/a> style.\u00a0 Some journal are predatory, where they use unexplained and unnecessary fees to submit and access journals. Reputable journals have recognizable editorial boards. Often, a reliable journal will associate with a trade, association, or recognized open source initiative.<\/p>\n<p>One of the hallmarks of scientific research is <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1732\">peer review<\/a>. \u00a0Research should be transparent to <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1732\">peer review<\/a>. This allows the scientific community to reproduce experimental results, correct and retract errors, and validate theories. This allows reproduction of experimental results, corrections of errors, and proper justification of the research to experts.<\/p>\n<p>Citation is not only imperative to avoid plagiarism, but also allows readers to investigate an author\u2019s line of thought and conclusions. When reading scientific works, it is important to confirm the citations are from reputable scientific research. Most often, scientific citations are used to reference paraphrasing rather than quotes. The number of times a work is cited is said to measure of the influence an investigation has within the scientific community, although this technique is inherently biased.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this section.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-6\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-6\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"6\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"1.6 Did I Get It?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3709\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3709\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-63\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/1.6-Did-I-Get-It.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3709\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you are using the printed version of this OER, access the quiz for section 1.6 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\n<p>Science is a process, with no beginning and no end. Science is never finished because a full truth can never be known. However, science and the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1728\">scientific method<\/a> are the best way to understand the universe we live in. Scientists draw conclusions based on <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_65_1722\">objective<\/a> evidence; they consolidate these conclusions into unifying models. Geologists likewise understand studying the Earth is an ongoing process, beginning with James Hutton who declared the Earth has \u201c\u2026no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end.\u201d Geologists explore the 4.5 billion-year history of Earth, its resources, and its many hazards. From a larger viewpoint, geology can teach people how to develop credible conclusions, as well as identify and stop misinformation.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Take this quiz to check your comprehension of this chapter.<\/h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-7\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-7\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"7\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Chapter 1 Review\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3708\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3708\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/slcc.pressbooks.pub\/app\/uploads\/sites\/35\/2021\/12\/Ch.1-Review.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-64\" src=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review-150x150.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review-1024x1024.png 1024w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review-768x768.png 768w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review-225x225.png 225w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review-350x350.png 350w, https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/app\/uploads\/sites\/516\/2022\/05\/Ch.1-Review.png 1147w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3708\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">If you using the printed version of this OER, access the review quiz for Chapter 1 via this QR Code.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\">\n<ol>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Adams, F.D., 1954, The birth and development of the geological sciences<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Alfe, D., Gillan, M.J., and Price, G.D., 2002, Composition and temperature of the Earth\u2019s core constrained by combining ab initio calculations and seismic data: Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., v. 195, no. 1, p. 91\u201398.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Alkin, M.C., 2004, Evaluation Roots: Tracing theorists\u2019 views and influences: SAGE.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Beckwith, C., 2013, How western Europe developed a full scientific method: Berfrois.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Birch, F., 1952, Elasticity and constitution of the Earth\u2019s interior: J. Geophys. Res., v. 57, no. 2, p. 227\u2013286., doi: <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/JZ057i002p00227\">10.1029\/JZ057i002p00227<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Bocking, S., 2004, Nature\u2019s experts: science, politics, and the environment: Rutgers University Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Chamberlin, T.C., 1890, The method of multiple working hypotheses: Science, v. 15, no. 366, p. 92\u201396.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Cohen, H.F., 2010, How modern science came into the world: Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough: Amsterdam University Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Darwin, C., 1846, Geological Observations on South America: Being the Third Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, Under the Command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. During the Years 1832 to 1836: Smith, Elder and Company.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Drake, S., 1990, Galileo: Pioneer Scientist: University of Toronto Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Engdahl, E.R., Flynn, E.A., and Masse, R.P., 1974, Differential PkiKP travel times and the radius of the core: Geophysical J Royal Astro Soc, v. 40, p. 457\u2013463.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Everitt, A., 2016, The Rise of Athens: The Story of the World\u2019s Greatest Civilization:<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Goldstein, B.R., 2002, Copernicus and the origin of his heliocentric system: Journal for the History of Astronomy, v. 33, p. 219\u2013235.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Goldsworthy, A.K., 2011, The complete Roman army: Thames &amp; Hudson.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hans Wedepohl, K., 1995, The composition of the continental crust: Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, v. 59, no. 7, p. 1217\u20131232.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Heilbron, J.L., 2012, Galileo: Oxford, Oxford University Press, 528 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Hogendijk, J.P., and Sabra, A.I., 2003, The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives: MIT Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Jakosky, B.M., Grebowsky, J.M., Luhmann, J.G., Connerney, J., Eparvier, F., Ergun, R., Halekas, J., Larson, D., Mahaffy, P., McFadden, J., Mitchell, D.F., Schneider, N., Zurek, R., Bougher, S., and others, 2015, MAVEN observations of the response of Mars to an interplanetary coronal mass ejection: Science, v. 350, no. 6261, p. aad0210.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Kerferd, G.B., 1959, The Biography of Aristotle Ingemar D\u00fcring: Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition. (Studia Graeca et Latina Gothoburgensia v.) Pp. 490; 1 plate. Gothenburg: Institute of Classical Studies, 1957. Paper, Kr. 32: Classical Rev., v. 9, no. 02, p. 128\u2013130.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Kolbert, E., 2014, The sixth extinction: an unnatural history: New York, Henry Holt and Co., 336 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Krimsky, S., 2013, Do financial conflicts of interest bias research? An inquiry into the \u201cfunding effect\u201d hypothesis: Sci. Technol. Human Values, v. 38, no. 4, p. 566\u2013587.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Lehmann, I., 1936, P\u2019, Publ: Bur. Centr. Seism. Internat. Serie A, v. 14, p. 87\u2013115.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Marshall, J., 2010, A short history of Greek philosophy: Andrews UK Limited.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Martin, C., 2014, Subverting Aristotle: Religion, History, and Philosophy in Early Modern Science: Baltimore\u202f: Johns Hopkins University Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Mayr, E., 1942, Systematics and the Origin of Species, from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist: Harvard University Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Montgomery, K., 2003, Siccar Point and teaching the history of geology: J. Geosci. Educ.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Mooney, W.D., Laske, G., and Masters, T.G., 1998, CRUST 5.1: A global crustal model: J. Geophys. Res. [Solid Earth], v. 103, no. B1, p. 727\u2013747.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Moustafa, K., 2016, Aberration of the Citation: Account. Res., v. 23, no. 4, p. 230\u2013244.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">National Center for Science Education, 2016, Climate change denial: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/ncse.com\/climate\/denial\">http:\/\/ncse.com\/climate\/denial<\/a>, accessed April 2016.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Oreskes, N., Conway, E., and Cain, S., 2010, Merchants of doubt: how a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming: Bloomsbury Press, 368 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Paradowski, R.J., 2012, Nicolas Steno: Danish anatomist and geologist: Great Lives from History: Scientists &amp; Science, p. 830\u2013832.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Patterson, C., 1956, Age of meteorites and the earth: Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, v. 10, no. 4, p. 230\u2013237.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Popper, K., 2002, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge: London\u202f; New York, Routledge, 608 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Porter, R., 1976, Charles Lyell and the Principles of the History of Geology: Br. J. Hist. Sci., v. 9, no. 02, p. 91\u2013103.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Railsback, B.L., 1990, T. C. Chamberlin\u2019s \u201cMethod of Multiple Working Hypotheses\u201d: An encapsulation for modern students: Online, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gly.uga.edu\/railsback\/railsback_chamberlin.html\">http:\/\/www.gly.uga.edu\/railsback\/railsback_chamberlin.html<\/a>, accessed December 2016.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Railsback, B.L., 2004, T. C. Chamberlin\u2019s \u201cMethod of Multiple Working Hypotheses\u201d: An encapsulation for modern students: Houston Geological Society Bulletin, v. 47, no. 2, p. 68\u201369.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Rappaport, R., 1994, James Hutton and the History of Geology. Dennis R. Dean: Isis, v. 85, no. 3, p. 524\u2013525.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Repcheck, J., 2007, Copernicus\u2019 secret: How the scientific revolution began: Simon and Schuster.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Repcheck, J., 2009, The Man Who Found Time\u202f: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth\u2019s Antiquity: New York: Basic Books.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Sabra, A.I. and Others, 1989, The optics of Ibn al-Haytham: Books I-III: On direct vision: Warburg Institute, University of London.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Saliba, G., 2007, Islamic science and the making of the European renaissance: MIT Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Shermer, M., 2011, What Is Pseudoscience? Scientific American.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Snow, C.E. (Ed.), 2016, Science literacy: concepts, contexts, and consequences: Washington, DC, National Academies Press (US).<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Spier, R., 2002, The history of the peer-review process: Trends Biotechnol., v. 20, no. 8, p. 357\u2013358.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Van Reybrouck, D., 2012, From Primitives to Primates: A History of Ethnographic and Primatological Analogies in the Study of Prehistory: Sidestone Press.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Waters, C.N., Zalasiewicz, J., Summerhayes, C., Barnosky, A.D., Poirier, C., Ga\\luszka, A., Cearreta, A., Edgeworth, M., Ellis, E.C., Ellis, M., Jeandel, C., Leinfelder, R., McNeill, J.R., Richter, D.D., and others, 2016, The Anthropocene is functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene: Science, v. 351, no. 6269, p. aad2622.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">de Wijs, G.A., Kresse, G., Vo\u010dadlo, L., Dobson, D., Alf\u00e8, D., Gillan, M.J., and Price, G.D., 1998, The viscosity of liquid iron at the physical conditions of the Earth\u2019s core: Nature, v. 392, no. 6678, p. 805\u2013807., doi: <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/33905\">10.1038\/33905<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Wyhe, J.V., 2008, Darwin: Andre Deutsch, 72 p.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Wyllie, P.J., 1970, Ultramafic rocks and the upper mantle, <i>in<\/i> Morgan, B.A., editor, Fiftieth anniversary symposia: Mineralogy and petrology of the Upper Mantle; Sulfides; Mineralogy and geochemistry of non-marine evaporites: Washington, DC, Mineralogical Society of America, p. 3\u201332.<\/li>\n<li class=\"csl-entry\">Zalasiewicz, J., Williams, M., Smith, A., Barry, T.L., Coe, A.L., Bown, P.R., Brenchley, P., Cantrill, D., Gale, A., Gibbard, P., and Others, 2008, Are we now living in the Anthropocene? GSA Today, v. 18, no. 2, p. 4.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"media-attributions clear\" prefix:cc=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/ns#\" prefix:dc=\"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/\"><h2>Mention de la source du contenu multim\u00e9dia<\/h2><ul><li >01.1_GCotY       <\/li><li >1.1 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >1.1_Eadweard_Muybridge-Sallie_Gardner_1878       <\/li><li >University_of_Queensland_Pitch_drop_experiment-white_bg-1       <\/li><li >Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30       <\/li><li >1.2 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >1.2_Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle       <\/li><li >1.2_Avicenna       <\/li><li >Bartolomeu_Velho_1568       <\/li><li >01.2_Galileo_manuscript       <\/li><li >01.2_Copernican_heliocentrism_diagram-2       <\/li><li >1.3 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >01.3_Stenoshark       <\/li><li >Cuvier_elephant_jaw       <\/li><li >01.3_Lyell_Principles_frontispiece       <\/li><li >John Tuzo Wilson in 1992       <\/li><li >1.4 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >01.4_ZionCLass       <\/li><li >16.1_Hoover_Dam,_Colorado_River       <\/li><li >16.2_Castle_Gate_Power_Plant,_Utah_2007       <\/li><li >09.8_Liquefaction_at_Niigata       <\/li><li >Crater lake oregon       <\/li><li >Rock Cycle       <\/li><li >05.4_Raindrop_impressions_mcr1       <\/li><li >Migmatite       <\/li><li >Plates tect2 en       <\/li><li >MohoDepth       <\/li><li >Earth cutaway schematic-en       <\/li><li >GeologicClock       <\/li><li >17.18_Geologic_Time_Scale_with_years       <\/li><li >Archaeopteryx lithographica (Berlin specimen)       <\/li><li >1.5 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >Science in America YouTube QR Code       <\/li><li >Anti-Evolution League       <\/li><li >1.4_Pillars of Denial       <\/li><li >Cancer smoking lung cancer correlation from NIH       <\/li><li >Cumulative Induced Seismicity       <\/li><li >GSA_logo3R_web100       <\/li><li >1.6 Did I Get It QR Code       <\/li><li >Ch.1 Review QR Code       <\/li><\/ul><\/div><div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">d\u00e9finition<\/span><template id=\"term_65_1722\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1722\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Data which is out of the ordinary and does not fit previous trends.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1723\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1723\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A controversial hypothesis which states the entire ocean froze and continental glaciation covered the planet about 700 million years ago.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1724\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1724\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A warm climate spike, the warmest in the recent past, occurring about 55 million years ago.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1725\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1725\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Period of warming within a glacial or ice age cycle.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1727\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1727\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A measurement which can specify a change in another system. For example, changes in climate can change the amount of certain isotopes of oxygen and carbon in sea creatures.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1728\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1728\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Place where material is extracted from the Earth for human use.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1736\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1736\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Material found around ore which is less valuable and needs to be removed in order to obtain ore.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1737\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1737\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A mechanical process which takes ore and separates it from gangue material.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1749\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1749\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Minerals with a luster similar to metal and contain metals, including valuable elements like lead, zinc, copper, tin, etc.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1729\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1729\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Valuable material in the Earth, typically used for metallic mineral resources.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2566\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2566\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1726\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1726\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A very brief period of warming, even warmer than a interglacial, within a glacial or ice age cycle.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1730\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1730\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Potentially extractible and valuable material, but unproven.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1733\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1733\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Large surface mine with opening carved into the ground.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2190\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2190\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1732\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1732\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Mining that occurs near the Earth's surface.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1731\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1731\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A proven commodity of profitable material that could be mined.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1653\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1653\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Erosional rock face caused by sand abrasion.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1654\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1654\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rock with abraded surfaces formed in deserts.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1734\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1734\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Mining that occurs as entire layers of ore and gangue are removed.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1735\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1735\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Mining that occurs within tunnels and shafts inside the Earth.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1244\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1244\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock made of primarily silt.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1253\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1253\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A very fine grained version of silica deposited with or without microfossils.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2590\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2590\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1912\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1912\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1917\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1917\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2592\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2592\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2593\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2593\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2594\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2594\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2595\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2595\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1228\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1228\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Lowest layer of the soil (C), which is mechanically weathered (not chemically weathered) bedrock.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_755\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_755\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. All generated QR Codes are 100% free and can be used for whatever you want. This includes all commercial purposes. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1778\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1778\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>[glossary]<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2598\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2598\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1708\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1708\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The measure of the amount of circular or elliptical nature of the Earth's orbit.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1709\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1709\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An overall global sea level change, either due to climate or seafloor spreading rate.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1738\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1738\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A process which chemically separates desired element(s) from ore minerals.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_246\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_246\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Woudloper (Own work) [Public domain], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AMineralogy_igneous_rocks_EN.svg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2414\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2414\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1934\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1934\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2415\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2415\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2419\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2419\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_250\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_250\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Amcyrus2012 (Own work) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\">CC BY 4.0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3ADiorite_MA.JPG\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1739\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1739\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Removing trace elements from desired elements.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1740\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1740\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Energy resources (typically hydrocarbons) derived from ancient chemical energy preserved in the geologic record. Includes coal, oil, and natural gas.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2402\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2402\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2272\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2272\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_228\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_228\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. All generated QR Codes are 100% free and can be used for whatever you want. This includes all commercial purposes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1748\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1748\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Oil which is found in low-permeability, high-porosity rocks such as shale.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1742\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1742\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A dark liquid fossil fuel derived from petroleum.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1743\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1743\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Gaseous fossil fuel derived from petroleum, mostly made of methane.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1745\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1745\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rocks which allow petroleum resources to collect or move.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1744\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1744\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rock that contains material which can be turned into petroleum resources. Organic-rich muds form good source rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1746\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1746\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A geologic circumstance (such as a fold, fault, change in lithology, etc.) which allows petroleum resources to collect.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1747\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1747\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Sands or sandstones that contain high-viscosity petroleum.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1750\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1750\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Minerals that have a luster that is not similar to metal, and typically do not contain valuable metals like copper, lead, zinc, tin, etc.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1751\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1751\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Metallic mineral deposit consisting of mafic plutonic rocks, typically containing platinum-group elements, chromium, copper, nickel, etc.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1658\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1658\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Dangerous flooding that occurs in arid regions.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1664\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1664\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Dunes that form semicircular shapes due to anchoring vegetation.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1752\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1752\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An ultramafic rock from deep volcanic vents that can contain diamonds.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2605\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2605\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1754\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1754\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Large metallic mineral deposit that forms near magma bodies like plutons. Commonly contains copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, and gold.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1755\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1755\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Oxidation that occurs in sulfide deposits which can concentrate valuable elements like copper.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1756\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1756\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Carbonate rock that reacts with hot magmatic fluids, creating concentrated ore deposits, which include copper, iron, zinc, and gold.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2606\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2606\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1757\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1757\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Low grade, broad deposits of microscopic gold found in sedimentary rocks with diagenetic alteration.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1961\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1961\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2207\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2207\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1758\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1758\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Reactions that are related to the availability of oxygen. Many minerals or ions change their solubility based on redox conditions.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1759\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1759\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Metallic mineral deposit of mainly lead and zinc from groundwater movements within sedimentary rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1760\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1760\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Diagenetic copper deposit within sedimentary rocks.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1761\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1761\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A highly weathered soil deposit that consists of aluminum ores.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1785\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1785\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1904\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1904\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1762\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1762\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Deposit of heavy ores in stream or beach sediments.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1767\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1767\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Sedimentary rocks made of mineral grains weathered as mechanical detritus of previous rocks, e.g. sand, gravel, etc.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1765\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1765\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A rule that says the outer valence shell of electrons is complete when it contains 8 electrons.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1669\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1669\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Glaciers that form in cool or mountainous areas.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1671\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1671\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Thick glaciers that cover continents during ice ages.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1909\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1909\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1667\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1667\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The process that turns non-desert land into desert.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1659\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1659\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Planar flow of water over land surfaces.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1013\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1013\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A chain of volcanic activity, typically in a curved pattern, rising from a subduction zone. The arc is on the overriding plate, typically a few hundred kilometers from the trench, but parallel to the trench.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1963\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1963\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2611\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2611\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1668\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1668\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A body of ice that moves downhill under its own mass.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1666\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1666\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Term for the extensional tectonic province that extends from California's Sierra Nevada Mountains in the west, to Utah's Wasatch Mountains to the east, to southern Oregon and Idaho to the north, to northern Mexico to the south. Known as a wide rift, as each graben 'basin,' bounded by horst 'ranges.' Each set of horsts with a graben has some individual extension, adding up to the overall rifting.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1673\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1673\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Cracks that form with glacial movement in the upper, brittle part of the glacier.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1674\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1674\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The net gain or loss of ice within a glacier.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2423\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2423\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1779\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1779\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1254\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1254\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Chemical sedimentary rocks that have a biologic component to their origin. Many limestones are biochemical.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1242\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1242\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Extremely thin bedding in mudstones, a characteristic of shale.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1255\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1255\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A chemical or biochemical rock made of mainly calcite.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1257\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1257\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Limestone made of primarily fine-grained calcite mud. Microscopic fossils are commonly present.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1261\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1261\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Discernible layers of rock, typically from a sedimentary rock.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1269\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1269\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A specific type of sedimentary structure (ripples, plane beds, etc.) linked to a specific flow regime.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1270\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1270\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A specific layer of rock formed by flowing fluid, either in the lowest part of the lower flow regime or lower part of the upper flow regime.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1243\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1243\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A very fine-grained rock with very thin layering (fissile).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1271\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1271\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Subtle ridges formed in the upper flow regime on top of plane beds in the direction of flow.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_479\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_479\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. All generated QR Codes are 100% free and can be used for whatever you want. This includes all commercial purposes. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_488\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_488\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>By Krishnavedala (Own work) [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/deed.en\">CC0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AHalf_times.svg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1275\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1275\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A special type of cross bedding that forms when strong storms produce mounds and divots of cross-bedded sand in deeper water.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1783\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1783\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_969\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_969\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Rob Lavinsky, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.irocks.com\/\">iRocks.com<\/a> \u2013 CC-BY-SA-3.0 [<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File%3AApatite-(CaF)-280343.jpg\">via Wikimedia Commons<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_970\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_970\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>QR Code generated with QRCode Monkey. All generated QR Codes are 100% free and can be used for whatever you want. This includes all commercial purposes. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1929\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1929\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1906\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1906\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2173\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2173\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1988\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1988\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_1763\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_1763\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Toxic waters rich in heavy metals and often of low pH that come from unregulated mining districts.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_757\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_757\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Photo credit to Louis J. Maher, Jr.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_65_2038\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_65_2038\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Fermer la d\u00e9finition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":291,"menu_order":1,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[49],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-65","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":19,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/65","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/291"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/65\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1790,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/65\/revisions\/1790"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/19"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/65\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=65"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=65"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=65"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/integrations.pressbooks.network\/testcloneglossaryterms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=65"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}